Table 3.
Sensor-derived gait parameters during single walking task across three groups.
| Gait Parameters | Group | Mean ± Std | p-Value (η2) | Pairwise Comparison | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Group | p-Value (d) | Mean Difference 95% CI |
|||||
| Right Sensor | Lower | Upper | |||||
| Propulsion duration (s) | Non-frail | 0.70 ± 0.11 | <0.001 (0.20) | N-P | <0.001 (0.62) | −0.19 | −0.55 |
| Pre-frail | 0.83 ± 0.23 | N-F | 0.003 (1.55) | −0.67 | −0.14 | ||
| Frail | 1.11 ± 0.46 | P-F | 0.036 (1.00) | −0.55 | −0.17 | ||
| Propulsion acceleration (deg/s2) | Non-frail | 366.6 ± 137.5 | <0.001 (0.13) | N-P | 0.035 (0.46) | 3.4 | 115.8 |
| Pre-frail | 306.0 ± 125.4 | N-F | <0.001 (1.28) | 90.6 | 243.1 | ||
| Frail | 198.7 ± 109.8 | P-F | 0.002 (0.87) | 38.8 | 175.8 | ||
| Mid stance speed (deg/s) | Non-frail | 137.6 ± 42.2 | <0.001 (0.10) | N-P | 0.075 (0.42) | −1.2 | 32.2 |
| Pre-frail | 122.1 ± 34.5 | N-F | <0.001 (0.99) | 16.6 | 62.2 | ||
| Frail | 98.2 ± 32.3 | P-F | 0.016 (0.70) | 4.0 | 43.8 | ||
| speed norm (deg/s) | Non-frail | 196.4 ± 53.5 | <0.001 (0.11) | N-P | 0.025 (0.46) | 2.7 | 49.0 |
| Pre-frail | 170.6 ± 57.7 | N-F | 0.003 (1.12) | 22.2 | 112.1 | ||
| Frail | 129.2 ± 3.6 | P-F | 0.067 (0.68) | −2.4 | 85.1 | ||
| Toe-off speed (deg/s) | Non-frail | 149.4 ± 48.2 | <0.001 (0.13) | N-P | 0.003 (0.58) | 9.4 | 52.1 |
| Pre-frail | 118.6 ± 55.3 | N-F | <0.001 (1.32) | 31.4 | 101.9 | ||
| Frail | 82.7 ± 56.1 | P-F | 0.038 (0.65) | 1.8 | 70.1 | ||
| Mid swing speed (deg/s) | Non-frail | 336.9 ± 63.3 | <0.001 (0.20) | N-P | <0.001 (0.73) | 21.2 | 76.0 |
| Pre-frail | 288.3 ± 69.0 | N-F | <0.001 (1.63) | 61.9 | 151.9 | ||
| Frail | 230.0 ± 74.8 | P-F | 0.007 (0.84) | 15.0 | 101.7 | ||
| Left Sensor | |||||||
| Propulsion duration (s) | Non-frail | 0.69 ± 0.10 | <0.001 (0.17) | N-P | <0.001 (0.94) | −0.21 | −0.65 |
| Pre-frail | 0.83 ± 0.25 | N-F | 0.004 (4.02) | −0.63 | −0.12 | ||
| Frail | 1.07 ± 0.45 | P-F | 0.071 (1.83) | −0.50 | 0.19 | ||
| Propulsion acceleration (deg/s2) | Non-frail | 382.8 ± 115.3 | <0.001 (0.12) | N-P | 0.007 (0.60) | 15.8 | 121.0 |
| Prefrail | 314.4 ± 142.3 | N-F | <0.001 (2.21) | 82.2 | 242.9 | ||
| Frail | 220.3 ± 126.5 | P-F | 0.016 (0.94) | 15.4 | 172.8 | ||
| Mid stance speed (deg/s) | Non-frail | 144.1 ± 34.9 | <0.001 (0.10) | N-P | 0.037 (0.33) | 0.8 | 31.9 |
| Pre-frail | 127.8 ± 40.8 | N-F | <0.001 (1.32) | 18.6 | 64.9 | ||
| Frail | 102.4 ± 35.8 | P-F | 0.023 (0.68) | 3.1 | 47.8 | ||
| Speed norm (deg/s) | Non-frail | 198.8 ± 54.8 | <0.001 (0.12) | N-P | 0.041 (0.37) | 0.8 | 48.6 |
| Pre-frail | 174.1 ± 60.5 | N-F | <0.001 (1.56) | 36.4 | 101.9 | ||
| Frail | 129.6 ± 48.9 | P-F | 0.004 (0.85) | 13.4 | 75.4 | ||
| Toe-off speed (deg/s) | Non-frail | 154.2 ± 53.8 | 0.001 (0.08) | N-P | 0.061 (0.34) | −0.8 | 47.6 |
| Pre-frail | 130.8 ± 64.4 | N-F | <0.001 (1.37) | 25.9 | 93.8 | ||
| Frail | 94.4 ± 51.8 | P-F | 0.027 (0.66) | 3.6 | 69.3 | ||
| Mid swing speed (deg/s) | Non-frail | 347.6 ± 58.9 | <0.001 (0.24) | N-P | <0.001 (0.78) | 29.7 | 82.4 |
| Pre-frail | 291.6 ± 69.2 | N-F | <0.001 (2.59 | 72.4 | 176.3 | ||
| Frail | 223.2 ± 85.8 | P-F | 0.007 (1.19) | 17.3 | 119.4 | ||
N = Non-frail, P = Pre-frail, and F = Frail. Effect size among the three groups were calculated using eta squared (η2) for ANOVA analysis. For pairwise comparison, the Cohen’s effect size (d) was calculated. Statistical significances were evaluated using alpha = 0.050 and highlighted with bold font. The pairwise confidence interval of the mean difference (Mean Difference 95% CI) is also present here.