Table 1.

Human studies of early life nutrition and osteoporosis.

Study ID	Year	Country	Sample size	Mean age	Primary outcomes
Cooper et al.26	1995	United Kingdom	153 women	21 years	Significant associations between weight at one year and BMC at the lumbar spine and femoral neck; Infant growth and physical activity in childhood are important determinants of peak bone mass in women;
Cooper et al.27	1997	United Kingdom	189 women and 224 men	63–73 years	Significant associations between weight at one year and BMC at the spine and femoral neck among women, and spine among men; Serum osteocalcin was negatively correlated with BMD;
Dennison et al.28	2005	United Kingdom	498 eight men and 468 women	About 70 years	Birth weight and weight at one year are independent determinants of bone mass in the seventh decade;
Yarbrough et al.29	2000	USA	305 postmenopausal women	70 years	Birth weight was positively correlated with BMC at the forearm, hip and lumbar spine;
Mikkola et al.30	2017	Finland	178 women	60.4 years	Birth length and growth in height before seven years of age were positively associated with femoral neck area and growth in height at all age periods studied with spine bone area;
Callréus et al.31	2013	Sweden	1,061 young adult women	25.00–25.99 years	Significant correlations were observed between birth weight and total body-BMC, femoral neck-BMC, total hip-BMC, lumbar spine L1-L4-BMC, and lean mass;
Christoffersen et al.32	2017	Norway	961 participants	15–18 years	Birth weight was positively associated with BMD and BMC at all sites among girls, and birth length was positively associated with BMC in boys;
Hyde et al.33	2017	Australia	475 pregnant women	29.7–30.3 years	Offspring bone area was associated with maternal diet; Birth length, weight and head circumference correlated poorly with all DXA measures at 11 years at both sites;
Leunissen et al.34	2008	the Netherlands	312 young adults	18–24 years	Adult weight, lean body mass, fat mass and weight gain during childhood were the main positive determinants for BMD of the total body in early adulthood;
Antoniades et al.37	2003	London	4,008 white female twins	47.5±12.3 years	Significant relationships were found between the intra-pair differences in birth weight and in BMC;

BMC: bone mineral content; BMD: bone mineral density; DXA: dual energy X-ray absorptiometry.