Table 2.
Animal models for the developmental origins of osteoporosis.
| Dietary conditions | Species | Period | Age | Main findings | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal low-protein diet (9% vs. 18% w/w casein) | Wistar rats | Throughout the 21 days of gestation | 4, 8, 12, and 20 weeks of age | Serum IGF-1 levels were lower in female restricted diet offspring at 4 weeks of age, and serum osteocalcin was significantly higher at 4 weeks of age in male and female offspring from mothers fed the restricted diet, whereas serum 25-OH vitamin D was significantly lower in restricted diet males at 8, 12, and 20 weeks of age; | Mehta et al.38 |
| Maternal low-protein diet (9% vs. 18% w/w casein) | Wistar rats | Throughout the 21 days of gestation | 8, 12, and 20 weeks of age | Lower serum insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and 25(OH)D levels; higher serum osteocalcin in offspring rat; | Lanham et al.39 |
| Maternal low-protein diet (9% vs. 18% w/w casein) | Wistar rats | Throughout the 21 days of gestation | 4 and 8 weeks | Downregulated the proliferation and differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells; | Oreffo et al.40 |
| Maternal low-vitamin D diet (25 IU vitamin D3/kg diet vs. 5000 IU vitamin D3/kg diet) | CD1 mice | During pregnancy and lactation | 3 months of age | Predisposed offspring with reduced vitamin D receptor and increased expression of pro-inflammatory genes in colon in offspring; | Jahani et al.41 |
| High dietary vitamin D | C57BL/6J mice | During pregnancy and lactation | 7 months of age | Improved trabecular bone structure at both the lumbar vertebra and femur in male offspring; | Villa et al.42 |
| Calcium supplementation | Sprague-Dawley rats | Presuckling for 14 days | 3 months of age and 27 weeks | Exhibited increases in trabecular bone mineral density; greater bone elongation in offspring; | Suntornsaratoon et al.43 |
| High-fat diet | Sprague-Dawley rats | 10 weeks before mating and during pregnancy | Gestational embryonic day 18.5 | Inhibited bone development, less potential to develop into mature osteoblasts | Chen et al.44 |
| High-fat diet | Sprague-Dawley rats | 12 weeks before mating and during pregnancy | Gestational embryonic day 18.5 | Increased in p53/p21-mediated cell senescence signaling, decreased glucose metabolism and decreased osteoblastic cell differentiation and proliferation. | Chen et al.45 |
| Soy protein isolate diet | Sprague-Dawley rats | continuous diet throughout life | About 6 months of age | Protected against one week post-ovariectomy-associated bone loss, diminished total, trabecular, and cortical bone mineral density loss. | Chen et al.46 |