Table 3.
Differential effects of dietary cholesterol on the pathophysiology of autoimmune disorders.
| Experimental Model/Population | Dietary Conditions | Effect | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Asthma | |||
| Ovalbumin-sensitized C57BL/6 mice | Cholesterol-rich (1% and 2%) diets | ↑ bronchoaveolar inflammation, eosinophil numbers, IL-5, cysteinyl leukotrienes | [27] |
| Ovalbumin-sensitized C57BL/6 mice | Cholesterol-rich (2%) diet | ↑ IL-5, PGE2, MCP-1, eosinophils numbers in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid ↑ IL-4, IFNγ production by pulmonary lymphocytes ↓ IL-12 |
[169] |
| Men and women from The 45 and Up Study, n = 156,035 | Diets rich in meats, poultry, and seafood | ↑ odds of asthma/hayfever diagnosis | [170] |
| Men and women from The 45 and Up Study, n = 156,035 | Diets rich in cheese | ↑ odds of asthma/hayfever diagnosis in men ↓ odds of asthma/hayfever diagnosis in women |
[170] |
| Rheumatoid arthritis | |||
| RA patients, n = 47 | Gluten-free, vegan diet for nine months vs. non-vegan diet | ↑ clinical improvement by ACR20 criteria | [171] |
| RA patients, n = 24 | Very low-fat (10% of energy) vegan diet | ↓ joint pain and swelling ↑ joint mobility |
[172] |
| RA patients, n = 53 | 7–10 day fast → gluten-free vegan diet vs. standard non-vegan diet |
↓ number of tender and swollen joints, pain score, duration of morning stiffness, white blood cell count, CRP ↑ grip strength |
[173] |
| RA patients, 53 | 7–10 day fast → gluten-free vegan diet → vegetarian diet vs. a standard non-vegan diet |
↓ leukocyte and platelet counts, total IgG and IgM rheumatoid factor, calprotectin, C3 and C4 complement proteins | [174] |
| APOE*3Leiden.CETP mice | Cholesterol-rich (0.1% and 0.3%) Western diets | ↑ joint inflammation, osteoarthritis development | [28] |
| Systemic Lupus Erythematous | |||
| ApoE/LXRβ-deficient mice | Cholesterol-rich (0.21%) Western diet | ↑ cholesterol accumulation in spleen and lymph nodes, T cell priming, B cell expansion, autoantibody production * Note: HDL-mediated efflux suppressed diet-induced B cell expansion and autoantibody production |
[100] |
| Multiple sclerosis | |||
| EAE mouse model of MS | High cholesterol (5%) diet | ↓ spinal immune cell infiltration, mRNA expression of TNFα, IL-17, IFNγ, GM-CSF, MHCII ↔ clinical scoring of CNS lesions and disease pathology |
[168] |
| Cuprizone-induced mouse model of MS | High cholesterol (2%) diet | ↔ demyelinization ↑ remyelinization, oligodendrocyte precursor cell proliferation, oligodendrocyte differentiation, motor function |
[168] |
| Lysolechithin-induced mouse model of MS | High cholesterol (2%) diet | ↑ remyelinization | [168] |
↓: Decreased; ↑: increased; ↔: no change or difference between experimental and control groups. Abbreviations: apoE: apolipoprotein E; CETP: cholesteryl ester transfer protein; CRP: C-reactive protein; EAE: experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis; GM-CSF: granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor; IgG: immunoglobulin G; IgM: immunoglobulin M; IL-12: interleukin 12; IL-17: interleukin 17; IL-4: interleukin 4; IL-5: interleukin 5; IFNγ: interferon γ; LXRβ: liver X receptor β; MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein 1; MS: multiple sclerosis; PGE2: prostaglandin E2; RA: rheumatoid arthritis; TNFα: tumor necrosis factor α.