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. 2018 Jun 29;8:9841. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-28153-y

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Changes in tannin concentrations in galls and leaves over the course of gallnut growth. (A) The fundatrix feeds on the winged rachides and initiates gall formation, the arrow pointing the location of early stage of gall on the leaf; (B) hundreds of aphids inside horned gall stimulating the gall growing constantly, the arrow pointing the individual aphid; (C) the change trend of two kinds of tannin contents in gall and in leaves with the growth of gallnut. The horizontal coordinates are the dry weight percentage of tannins; the vertical coordinates are different developmental stage of gallnut from June 21 to October 12.