Table 1.

Signaling molecules during myogenesis.

Gene	Anatomical Location	Model	Function	Reference
Bone Morphogenetic Factor (BMP)
Bmp2		murine fibroblasts	prevention of myogenesis	[21,22]
		murine myoblasts	inhibition of MyoG expression	[23,24]
		fish	delayed muscle differentiation	[25]
Bmp4		human fetal myoblasts	regulation of proliferation	[26]
		chick	induction of embryonic and fetal myogenesis	[27]
		frog	induction of ventral mesoderm	[28]
		chick	inhibition of Myod and Myf5	[29]
		axolotl	somite development	[30]
colloid-like 1 BMP4 regulator	anterior somites	chick	neck muscle formation	[31]
Noggin BMP4 antagonist	Neural Tube; Notochord	mouse	differentiation	[32,33]
		chick	growth inhibition	[34]
		mouse	fetal myogenesis; migration of muscle progenitor cells	[35,36]
Bmp7	dorsal Neural Tube	chick	muscle growth, apoptosis	[34]
Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF)
Fgf2	Central Nervous System	fish	inhibition of muscle pioneer cells	[19,24,25]
Fgf4	myotubes	mouse	mesoderm formation	[37]
		chick	inhibition of terminal differentiation of limb	[38]
		chick	induction of tendon-specific markers	[39]
		chick	patterning during gastrulation	[40]
		frog	activation of Myod	[41,42]
Fgf5	Lateral Plate Mesoderm	mouse	formation of germ layers	[43]
		chick	inhibition of myogenesis	[44]
Fgf8	caudal end of embryo	fish	terminal muscle differentiation	[45,46]
		chick	tendon formation	[39]
		fish	somitic muscle formation	[47]
		murine myoblasts	myotubes formation	[48]
		fly	mesodermal cell migration	[49]
		chick	mesodermal cell migration	[40]
		chick; mouse	myoblast proliferation	[50]
Notch Pathway
Notch	Ectoderm	mouse	terminal muscle differentiation	[32,33]
		frog	inhibition of cell fusion; myotube formation	[51]
		mouse	cell fate decisions	[52]
		murine myoblasts	inhibition of muscle differentiation	[53]
rbp-j NOTCH ligand	trunk somites	frog	determination of dorsolateral and ventral mesoderm	[28]
		axolotl	formation of the dermomyotome	[30]
		myeloma cells	inhibition of differentiation	[54]
		mouse	differentiation	[32,33]
		murine myoblasts	inhibition of differentiation	[55]
Jagged-1 NOTCH ligand	trunk mesenchyme, splachnopleure	mouse	differentiation	[32,33]
		murine myoblasts	inhibition of differentiation	[56,57]
Delta1 NOTCH ligand	Neural Crest cells	mouse	terminal differentiation	[32,33]
		chick	inhibition of terminal differentiation	[58]
		chick	terminal differentiation, inhibition of exiting the cell cycle	[59]
Mesp2 NOTCH ligand	Presomitic Mesoderm	mouse	somitic boundaries	[60]
		mouse	cellular epithelialization	[61]
		mouse	somitogenesis; rostro-caudal polarity	[62]
		mouse	inhibition of NOTCH targets	[63]
Ephrin Ligands
EphA4	Presomitic Mesoderm	mouse	somitogenesis	[61]
		chick	somitogenesis	[64]
ephinb2	somites	chick	somitogenesis, expression of N-cadherin	[64]
Ripply	Presomitic Mesoderm	mouse	rostro-caudal polarity	[62]
		mouse	Mesp2 expression	[65]
neurotrophin 3	Neural Tube	chick	Pax3 expression induction, somitic myogenesis regulation	[66]
		chick	dermatome dissociation; epithelial-mesenchymal transition	[67]
Retinoic Acid (RA)
Ra	cranial end of the embryo	mouse	Myf5 expression	[68]
		fish	somitogenesis; fast muscle differentiation	[69]
		murine myoblasts	inhibition of myoblast proliferation; differentiation	[69]
		mouse	somitogenesis	[70]
Sonic Hedgehog (SHH)
Shh	Neural Tube, Notochord	chick	somitogenesis	[66]
		fish	formation of slow muscle precursor cells	[71]
		chick	induction of myogenesis	[72]
		fish	inhibition of pax3/7; activation of myf5 and myod	[47]
		chick	induction of pax3 and myod1	[73]
		chick	activation of slow MyHC	[74]
		mouse	epaxial and hypaxial myogenesis	[75]
Wnt
Wnt1	Neural Tube	chick	pax3 activation; somitogenesis	[66]
		murine myoblasts	formation of slow fiber types promotion	[76]
		chick	formation of paraxial mesoderm	[72]
		mouse	Formation of medial and dorsal portion of somites	[77]
		mouse	Myf5 activation	[15]
Wnt3a	Neural Tube, Apical Ectodermal Ridge (AER)	murine myoblasts	Bmp4 activation; formation of slow fibers	[76]
		mouse	Formation of dorsomedial part of somites	[77]
		murine myoblasts	myotube formation	[78]
		human embryonic stem cells	myogenic commitment	[79]
		murine myoblasts	myotube formation	[80]
		pluripotent stem cells	cardiomyocytes proliferation	[81]
Wnt4	Neural Tube	chickmurine myoblasts	activation of pax7 and myod1; formation of fast myofibers	[82]
		mouse embryos	activation of Myf5 and Myod1	[15]
		murine myoblasts	myotube formation	[78]
		murine satellite cells and myoblasts	activation of myogenesis	[83]
Wnt6	Paraxial Ectoderm	mouse	activation of Myf5 and Myod1 in paraxial mesoderm	[15]
		chick	activation of Pax3, Paraxis, Myf5, Myog, Desmin and MyHC	[84]
Wnt7a	Dorsal Ectoderm	mouse	activation of Myod1	[15]
Wnt11	somites	chick	formation of fast myofibers	[85]
		chick	elongation of myocytes	[86]