Table 1.
Berry metabolism response to environmental factors.
| Plant material | Region (Country) | Year | Experiment | Environmental factor | Trend | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Temperature (T) | ||||||
| Shiraz, Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon | Western Australia wine regions | 1975–2005 | Modeling and projections for 2030, 2050, and 2070 | T: Low and high warming condition projected for Australia | CC decreases tartaric acid content and earlier accumulation of sugar is expected. CC reduces anthocyanin accumulation depending on the projected scenario and the cultivar | Barnuud et al., 2014 |
| Sangiovese | n.m. | 2010 | Potted vines grown in greenhouses | T: +2°C over the average temperature and +7°C over the maximun temperature | T decreased anthocyanin content although no changes in its composition were observed. T did not affect acidity | Movahed et al., 2016 |
| n.m. | n.m. | n.m. | Microvines grown in greenhouses | Day and night HS in different ripening states | Night HS reduced total anthocyanin content. No effect on malate. Night HS up-regulated Pro metabolism related genes | Rienth et al., 2014 |
| Malvec and Bonarda | Mendoza (Argentina) | 2014 and 2015 | Commercial vineyard | HT: increased mean diurnal temperatures | Day HT reduced total anthocyanins and shifted toward acylated derivatives due to the up-regulation of the acyltransferase gene | De Rosas et al., 2017 |
| Kyoho | n.m. | n.m. | Potted vines in phytotron | T: 25, 27, and 30°C; Shade or sun-exposition | T (27 or 30°C) and shade decreased the anthocyanin content | Shinomiya et al., 2015 |
| Water deficit (WD) | ||||||
| Pinot noir | Geinseihem (Germany) | 2009–2011 | Field experiment | WS (no rainfall during the growing season) and rootstock | WD increased anthocyanin and other phenolic content in berries but the effect was dependent on the rootstock sensitiveness | Berdeja et al., 2014 |
| Cabernet Sauvignon | Maipo Valley (Chile) | 2014 | Commercial vineyard | WD (3.6, 1.8, and 0.3 mm day-1) | WD increased total phenols and total proanthocyanidins and their polymerization but no differences in total anthocyanins were found | Cáceres-Mella et al., 2017 |
| Chardonnay and Meski | n.m. | n.m. | Potted vines in growth chambers | WD (water privation for 8 days) | WD increased the concentration of Arg, Orn, Glu, Gln, GABA and Pro. | Hatmi et al., 2015 |
| Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon | Israel | 2011 | Field experiment | WD (50% of control) | WD decreased resveratrol and TCA molecules and increased kaempferol and anthocyanins | Hochberg et al., 2015 |
| Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon | Negev Desert (Israel) | 2011 | Commercial vineyard | WD (50% of control) | WD increased amino acid content due to increasing Pro, increased flavonols and anthocyanins and decreased stilbenes and flavanols. WD did not affect Mv derivatives. Between véraison and harvest, glucoside derivatives of Dp, Cy, and Pt were increased in Shiraz and only Dp in Cabernet Sauvignon. Coumaroyl forms of anthocyanins were reduced in Shyraz and increased in Cabernet Sauvignon | Hochberg et al., 2015 |
| Tempranillo and Graciano | Navarra (Spain) | 2011 | Fruit-bearing cuttings grown in greenhouses | WD (50% of control) | WD decreased anthocyanins due to decreasing glucoside derivatives and increasing acetil and coumaroryl derivatives. WD increased flavonols in Tempranillo and decreased flavonols and catechins in Graciano | Niculcea et al., 2015 |
| Shiraz | Montpellier (France) | 2004 | Experimental vineyard | ED and LD | At maturity, LD increased total anthocyanins, trihydroxylated forms and the acetylated and coumaroylated derivatives. ED increased dihydroxylated forms. Both WD increased non-acylated anthocyanins. | Ollé et al., 2011 |
| Monastrell | Murcia (Spain) | 2009–2012 | Experimental station | NI, PRI and DI before véraison | NI decreased TSS, and increased malic acid, total anthocyanins and the acelylated derivatives. WD enhanced flavonol content until véraison and PRI induced amino acid accumulation regardless the amount of water | Romero et al., 2015 |
| Sauvignon vert or Sauvignonasse | Udine (Italy) | 2012 | Experimental vineyard | NI | WD enhanced phenylpropanoids, monoterpenes, and tocopherols, while carotenoids and flavonoid accumulations were differentially modulated by WD according to the berry developmental stage. WD increased flavan-3-ols and proanthocyanidins before véraison, but decreased them after it | Savoi et al., 2016 |
| Merlot | Udine (Italy) | 2011 and 2012 | Experimental vineyard | WD | WD increased Pro, Leu, Val, and Ile accumulation and decreased the synthesis and concentration of stilbenoids | Savoi et al., 2017 |
| Aglianico | Montegiordano Marina (Italy) | 2008 | Field experiment | NI | NI increased total anthocyanins and the ratio between acetylated and coumaroylated, flavonols were not affected | Sofo et al., 2012 |
| Tempranillo | Estremoz (Portugal) | 2007 and 2008 | Field experiment | NI and DI | Sugar accumulation and acidity were not affected. NI increased total phenols but decreased total flavonols, anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins | Zarrouk et al., 2012 |
| Ligth (L) | ||||||
| Riesling | Geisenheim (Germany) | 2012 | Field experiment | L exposition | L exposition increased flavonol and monoterpene content of berries and their synthases | Friedel et al., 2016 |
| Gamay Fréaux and Gamay | Bordeaux (France) | n.m. | Field experiments | L exposition and exclusion | L exclusion delayed the onset of sugar accumulation by 1 week, decreasing the final concentration of hexose in one cv. L exposition increased anthocyanin concentration after véraison whereas L exclusion decreased anthocyanin accumulation (mainly, Dp, Pt, and Mv) in berry skin and flesh | Guan et al., 2016 |
| Cabernet Sauvignon | Negev Desert (Israel) | 2014–2015 | Field experiment | L exposition (fully, 60% and 30% exposed) | L exposition decreased malic, Asp and fumaric acids while increased tartaric acid in the pulp and triggered the accumulation of Phe, narigenin-chalcone-4-O-glucoside, Cy-3-gluc and flavonols and decreased flavan-3-ols, hydroxy-cinnamates and Mv in the skin | Reshef et al., 2017 |
| UV radiation (UV) | ||||||
| Malbec | Mendoza (Argentina) | 2008–2009 | Commercial vineyard | UV-B | UV-B enhanced anthocyanins, gallic acid, proantocyanins, flavonols and flavanols and decreased TSS | Berli et al., 2011 |
| Grenache and Carignan | Sardinia (Italy) | 2009 and 2010 | Fields | L exposition and visible R, and visible and UV-A exclusion. Two season, one of them warmer. | UV radiation induced accumulation of anthocyanins with a decrease in trihydroxylated and an increase in dihydroxylated anthocyanins. T caused a decrease in anthocyanin content regardless the L | Fernandes de Oliveira and Nieddu, 2016 |
| Tempranillo | n.m. | n.m. | Fruit bearing cuttings grown under controlled conditions | UV-B: 0, 5.98 and 9.66 kJ m-2 d-1 applied during two ripening moments | UV-B did not affect sugars and acids. Medium UV-B increased extractable anthocyanins while high UV-B decreased them. UV-B increased flavonols and their mono- and di-substituted derivatives and decreased trisubstituted forms. UV-B did not affect total amino acid concentration although decreased Thr, Met, Ile, Ser and Gly and increased GABA | Martínez-Lüscher et al., 2014 |
| Temperature (T) and water deficit (WD) | ||||||
| Tempranillo | n.m. | 2014 | Fruit-bearing cuttings grown under controlled conditions. | T: +4°C; WD: ED and LD | T increased glucose and fructose and decreased tartaric acid in berries. Elevated T and LD enhanced amino acid content, mainly Pro, Arg, Thr and Gln. T increased methoxylated anthocyanins and flavonols. | Torres et al., 2017 |
| Tempranillo | Alentejo (Portugal) | 2013–2014 | Field experiments | SDI and RDI; T: more hours of higher temperature depending on the cluster position | RDI enhanced sugars and decreased acidity, T decreased anthocyanins | Zarrouk et al., 2016 |
| Temperature (T), and light (L) | ||||||
| Gamay | n.m. | n.m. | Cell culture derived from red berry skins | HT: 40°C ; HL: 2500 μmolm-2s-1 | HL decreased anthocyanins although increased Pn and acetilglucoside derivatives and resveratrol. HT increased coumaroyl Pn and epigallocathechin. HT and HL and T increased Trp, Ala and Ser more than 3 fold | Ayenew et al., 2015 |
| V. lambrusca (Pione) | Hiroshima (Japan) | n.m. | Research vineyard | L exclusion and T: 35°C | T or dark treatment decreased anthocyanin mainly, Mv and Pn derivatives, and enhanced flavonol content | Azuma et al., 2012 |
| Pione (Vitis × lambruscana) | n.m. | n.m. | Berries incubated in a multi incubator for 10 days | HT: 35°C, LT:15°C and L (white and UV) or dark | HT or dark decreased anthocyanin accumulation. LT and light induced anthocyanin accumulation | Azuma et al., 2012 |
| Muscat Hamburg | n.m. | 2006 | Fruit-bearing cuttings grown in greenhouses | HT: 30/25°C (day/night) and HL: (400 μmolm-2 s-1 PPFD) | T did not affect sugar content, decreased berry TA, malic acid and increased pH. Treatments did not affect amino acid proportion at maturity and total polyphenol content. T decreased anthocyanins and HL increased anthocyanins under elevated T | Carbonell-Bejerano et al., 2013 |
| Pinot noir | Different location in Europe | 2013 | Field | Latitudinal gradient with changes in T and R | Higher values of solar R decreased phenolic compounds excepting anthocyanins, the ratio between trihydroxylated and dihydroxylated flavonols was strongly correlated with R related parameters. R increased total contents of phenolic groups, mainly flavonols and flavanols | Del-Castillo-Alonso et al., 2016 |
| Carignan and Grenache | Sardinia (Italy) | 2009–2011 | Field experiment | HT: +1.5°C and 3°C over the average temperature(1971–2000) and attenuation of the PAR and UV radiation | HT decreased anthocyanin content although a positive effect of UV-A on acylation levels was observed increasing the content in Cy and Pn derivatives | Fernandes de Oliveira et al., 2015 |
| Temperature (T), water deficit (WD) and light (L) | ||||||
| Ugni blanc | Cognac region (France) | 2011 and 2013 | Field | Vintage effect (T, sun radiation and WD: less rainfall) | Warmer, sunnier and dryer vintage increased tartaric and ascorbic acids | Cholet et al., 2016 |
| Touriga nacional and Trincadeira | Pegoes, Setúbal (Portugal) | 2007 | Fruit-bearing cuttings grown under controlled conditions. | NI (4–5 days without irrigation), HS (42°C, 1 h) and LS (2000 μmol.quanta m-2s-1, 1 h). | WD, HS and LS increased anthocyanins and carotenoids in leaves from Touriga Nacional | Carvalho et al., 2016 |
| Ligth (L) and UV radiation (UV) | ||||||
| Sauvignon Blanc | Elgin area of South Africa | 2012, 2014 and 2015 | Commercial vineyard | HL with UV-B attenuation, LL with UV-B attenuation. | UV-B attenuation in HL decreased quercetin-glucoside (responsive of polyphenolic compounds), UV-B exposition enhanced monoterpenes | Joubert et al., 2016 |
| Water deficit (WD) and UV radiation (UV) | ||||||
| Malbec | Mendoza (Argentina) | 2011–2013 | Commercial vineyard | UV-B, WD and ABA | UV-B increased quercetin and kaempferol | Alonso et al., 2016a |
| Climate Change conditions (CC) | ||||||
| White and red Tempranillo | Navarra (Spain) | 2013 | Fruit-bearing cuttings grown in temperature-gradient-greenhouses | CC (T: +4° C over ambient temperature; CO2: 700 ppm; CD) | CC decreased malic acid and tartaric acid in white Tempranillo while increased in red. CD and CO2 increased sugars in must of both red and white Tempranillo. CC decreased TPI in white, no effect on red Tempranillo. CO2 increased total anthocyanins | Kizildeniz et al., 2015 |
| Tempranillo | Navarra (Spain) | 2011 | Fruit-bearing cuttings grown in greenhouses | CC (CO2: 700 ppm; T: 28/18°C; 33–53% RH; WD: 60% of controls) and type of soil | CC increased must pH, and decreased malic and tartaric acid concentrations. CC decreased total anthocyanins and color intensity in the must | Leibar et al., 2017 |
| Tempranillo | Navarra (Spain) | 2012 | Fruit-bearing cuttings grown in greenhouses | CC (CO2: 700 ppm; T: 28/18°C; UV-B: 0; 5,98; 9,66 kJ m-2 d-1) | UV-B increased flavonols, anthocyanins and UV-absorbing compounds, CC conditions decreased them | Martínez-Lüscher et al., 2015b |
| Tempranillo | Navarra (Spain) | 2008 | Fruit-bearing cuttings grown in greenhouses | (T: +4°C over ambient temperature; CO2: 700 ppm; WD: 40% of controls) | CC increased TSS, and pH; no effect on the TA or tartaric acid content. WD and CC decreased malic acid. WD decreased anthocyanins, CC mitigated this effect. | Salazar-Parra et al., 2010 |
Ala, alanine; Arg, arginine; Asp, aspartic acid; CC, climate change; CD, cyclic drought; CO2, Increment of carbon dioxide; Cy, cyanidin; DI, deficit irrigation; Dp, delphidin; ED, early water deficit; GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid; Gln, glutamine; Glu, glutamic acid; Gly, glycine; HL, high light; HS, heat stress; HT, high temperature; Ile, isoleucine; L, light; LD, late water deficit; Leu, leucine; LL, low light; LS, light stress; LT, low temperature; Met, metionine; Mv, malvidin; n.m., not mentioned; NI, non irrigated; Orn, ornithine; Phe, phenylalanine; Pn, peonidin; PRI, partial root irrigation; Pro, proline; Pt, petunidin; R, radiation; Ser, serine; T, Temperature; TA, Total acidity; Thr, threonine; Trp, tryptophane; TSS, Total soluble solids; UV-B, UV-B radiation; Val, valine; WD, Water deficit.