Table 2.

Role of nutrients and diets against inflammatory bowel disease

Base material	Main compounds/agents	Mode of action	Ref.
Probiotics
Lactic acid bacteria	Lactobacillus suntoryeus	Inhibited the activation of TLR-4-linked NF-κB activation	[32]
	Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis S-SU2	Prevented the colonic shortening, lowering of liver and thymus weights, and spleen enlargement	[33]
	Lactobacillus paracasei LS2 (from kimchi)	Increased IL-10	[34]
		Reduced TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β and MPO activity
	Lactococcus lactis NZ9000 (NZ-HO)	Reduced CD11b+ F4/80+ and CD11b+ Gr-1+	[35]
	Lactobacillus plantarum AN1	Increased IL-10; reduced IL-1α and IL-6	[36]
	Lactobacillus sakei K040706	Ameliorated the atrophy of colon length, mucosal damage, and spleen enlargement	[38]
Bifidobacteria	Bifidobacterium bifidum 231	Reduced the expression of iNOS, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6	[41]
	Bifidobacterium longum CCM7952	Suppressed NF-κB, STAT3, and TLR4 expression	[31]
		Increased IL-10; Decreased IL-1β
		Engaged TLR2; Contained NOD2
		Improved epithelial barrier
Dietary fibers and prebiotics
Konjac glucomannan	Konjac glucomannan hydrolysate	Reduced bowel movement, diarrhea, blood in feces, abdominal pain, and flatulence	[44]
Glucan	β-(1,3–1,6)-d-glucan	Improved fecal output	[45]
	Oat β-glucan	Reduced visceral pain	[46]
		Lowered MPO, NO, and MDA
		Inhibited the expressions of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and iNOS
	Glucan from mushroom (Pleurotus pulmonarius)	Reduced histological damage	[47]
	Bacterial β-(1,3)-glucan	Reduced the expression of IL-1β	[48]
		Reversed Treg reduction
Nanofiber	Cellulose nanofiber from seaweed	Decreased NK cell defects and IgA production	[49]
Prebiotics	Cellulose nanofiber from pear	Improved intestinal tissue injury	[50]
		Suppressed the activation of NF-κB
	Fructooligosaccharides	Suppressed colon atrophy	[51]
		Suppressed the activation of NF-κB
	Goat milk oligosaccharide	Decreased IFN-γ, IL-17, and TNF-α levels	[52]
	Inulin	Increased LAB population	[53]
		Decreased inflammation
		Improved mucosal damage
		Decreased TNFα, COX-2, IL-2, and IL-6
Vitamins	1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3	Suppressed TNF-α	[57]
		Enhanced IL-10 production
	1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3	Reduced IFN-γ	[58]
	Vitamin D3	Increased CD+ T cells and IL-6	[59]
		Protected mitochondria
	Vitamin A	Inhibited nuclear respiratory factor (NFR)-1 and mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM)	[60]

TLR: Toll-like receptor; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor α; IFN-γ: Interferon γ; IL: Interleukin; NF-κB: Nuclear factor κB.