Table 3.

Role of natural extracts and phytochemicals against inflammatory bowel disease

Base material	Main compound/agent	Mode of action	Ref.
Extracts
Mushroom	Coriolus versicolor extract	Reduced TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6	[68]
		Reduced STAT1 and STAT6
	Cordiceps militaris extract	Decreased epithelial damage	[70]
		Suppressed iNOS and TNF-α mRNA expression
	Inonotus obliquus extract	Suppressed TNF-α, COX-2, and IFN-γ	[73]
	Ganoderma lucidum extract	Inhibited MAPK phosphorylation and NF-κB activation	[74]
		Decreased histological score
Fruit extracts
Prunus mume	Prunus mume extract	Suppressed mucosal damage, TNF-α, and iNOS expressions	[75]
Pomegranate	Pomegranate extract (ellagitannins and ellagic acid)	Decreased the expression of TNF-α, COX-2, IL-4, and STAT6	[77]
		Prevented the translocation of NF-κB	[78]
Cranberry	Cranberry fruit/extract	Modulated NF-κB and IL-1β signaling	[79]
	Blueberry extract	Attenuated colon shortening
		Suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokines	[80]
Averrhoa bilimbi	Averrhoa bilimbi L. extract	Prevented oxidation
		Inhibited pro-inflammatory mediators	[81]
Aronia melanocarpa	Arronia melanocarpa juice	Reduced NF-κB translocation
Ginger	Ginger extract (zingerone)	Decreased mucosal injury	[82]
Marine food		Decrease the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines	[83]
	Haliotis discus hannai Ino extract	Improved colonic damage	[84]
		Decreased TBARS concentration
		Suppressed NF-κB and IL-1β
	Green algae extract	Suppressed colonic tissue damage
		Downregulated IFN-γ and IL-4
		Ameliorated colonic tissue damage
		Decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines
Phytochemicals	Apple polyphenols	Reduced COX-2 and TNF-α	[85]
		Recovered transglutaminase protein
	Resveratrol	Suppressed NF-κB and TNF-α	[86]
		Reduced clinical score
	Cardamonin	Reduced histopathological damage	[18]
		Reduced iNOS, NF-κB, TNF-α, COX-2, and caspase-3
		Suppressed IL-1β and TNF-α
	Ginsenoside Rg1	Reduced colonic damage and DAI	[90]
		Improved colon shortening and DAI
	Sulforaphane	Suppressed STAT3 expression	[91]
	Curcumin	Reduced TNF-α, IL-1β, and MPO	[92]
		Attenuated morphological damage

TLR: Toll-like receptor; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor α; IFN-γ: Interferon γ; IL: Interleukin; NF-κB: Nuclear factor κB.