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. 2018 Jul 10;8:10388. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-28489-5

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Selection on caste-biased genes in (A) Polistes, (B) Bombus, and (C) Apis. Queen-biased genes have the highest γ and the highest proportion of genes with γ > 1 in both Polistes and Bombus. Apis exhibits an opposite pattern where worker-biased genes have the highest γ and the highest proportion of genes with γ > 1 (see Results for details). The error bars represent the standard error of the mean. NON-DEG = Non-differentially expressed genes. * < 0.05, ** < 0.01, *** < 0.001.