Table 1.

Various carbohydrate elicitors inducing defense responses in plants.

Carbohydrate elicitors	Source	Plants eliciting defense responses	Plant defense responses	Reference
Sugars (Glucose, G-6-P,Sucrose, Trehalose, T-6-P)	Plant	Arabidopsis, Lupinus angustifolius, wheat	Activation of pathogen resistance (PR) genes, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), and peroxidase (POX) activity	Xiao et al., 2000; Reignault et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2009; Nunes et al., 2013
β-glucans	Microbial cell wall	Arabidopsis, leguminous plant, grapevine, alfalfa, tobacco	Induction of chitinase and PAL activity, synthesis of isoflavanoid and phytoalexins	Klarzynski et al., 2000; Caillot et al., 2012; Fesel and Zuccaro, 2016
Laminarin	Brown algae	Tobacco, grapevine	Induction of calcium influx, oxidative burst, activation of PR genes	Klarzynski et al., 2000; Aziz et al., 2003
Chitin	Fungal cell wall	Rice, barley, Arabidopsis,	Induce hypersensitive response, mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, PR genes, chitinase activity, PAL activity, phytoalexins accumulation, callose deposition	Yamada et al., 1993; Kishimoto et al., 2010; Tanaka et al., 2010; Yamaguchi et al., 2013,
Chitosan	Fungal cell wall	Pea, dicotyledonous species, melon	Induce PR genes, chitinase activity, PAL activity, phytoalexin accumulation	Kohle et al., 1985; Conrath et al., 1989; Burkhanova et al., 2007
Cellodextrins	Plant	Grapevine	Activation of PR genes, induction of calcium influx, oxidative burst, phytoalexin accumulation	De Lorenzo and Ferrari, 2002; Aziz et al., 2007
Alginate	Sea weed	Soybean, rice	Phytoalexins accumulation, activation of PR genes encoding PAL, induction of POX activity	An et al., 2009 ; Zhang S. et al., 2015
Fucans	Sea weed	Tobacco	Induce PAL activity, PR genes	Kombrink and Somssich, 1995; Klarzynski et al., 2003