Table 2.
Summary of the protective effects of rutin in in vivo models of neurodegeneration.
| Toxin used in animal model | Disorder | Key findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Doxorubicin- (DOX-) treated neuroblastoma cells (IMR32) and doxorubicin-induced cognitive dysfunction in Wistar rats | AD | ↓ apoptosis, ↓ ROS, ↓ episodic memory deficit, ↓ TNF-α, ↑ DOX-induced reduction of catalase, GSH, and SOD | [167] |
|
| |||
| Microglial cells obtained from the cortex of Wistar newborn rats | AD | ↓ TNF, ↓ IL-1b, ↓ IL-6, ↓ iNOS, ↑ IL-10, ↑ arginase, ↓ PTGS2, ↓ IL-18, ↓ TGFβ | [161] |
|
| |||
| ∗∗APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mice | AD | ↑ memory, ↑ SOD, ↑ GSH/GSSG ratio, ↓ GSSG, ↓ MDA, ↓IL-1, ↓IL-6 | [164] |
|
| |||
| High-fat diet-induced obese (DIO) cognitively impaired C57BL/6J mice | AD | ↓ cognitive defects | [165] |
|
| |||
| Scopolamine-treated Wistar rats | AD | ↑ recognition, ↑discriminative indices | [168] |
|
| |||
| Aβ25–35-infused mouse model | AD | ↓ impaired cognition, ↑ memory, ↓ NO, ↓ lipid peroxidation | [166] |
|
| |||
| Beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxic rats | AD | ↑ ERK1, ↑ CREB, ↑ BDNF, ↑ memory retrieval, ↓ MDA | [171] |
|
| |||
| Intracerebroventricular streptozotocin- (ICV-STZ-) infused rats | AD | ↓ TBARS, ↓ nitrite level, ↓ poly ADP-ribosyl polymerase, ↑ GSH, ↓ lipid peroxidation, ↓ cognitive deficits, ↓ COX-2, ↓ GFAP, ↓ IL-8, ↓ iNOS, ↓ NF-κB | [172] |
|
| |||
| Scopolamine-induced zebrafish | AD | ↓ amnesia | [173] |
|
| |||
| Intrastriatal injection of 6-OHDA in rats | PD | ↓ 6-OHDA-induced increase in rotations, ↓ deficits in locomotor activity, ↓ motor coordination, ↑ antioxidant levels, ↑ DA, ↑ dopaminergic D2 receptors | [78] |
|
| |||
| Haloperidol-treated rats | PD | ↓ catalepsy, ↓ akinesia, ↑ locomotor activity, ↑ GSH, ↑ SOD, ↓ TBARS | [77] |
|
| |||
| 3-Nitropropionic (3-NP) acid-treated rats | HD | Improved 3-NP-induced behavioral alterations; restored activities of mitochondrial complex enzymes | [199] |
|
| |||
| 3-Nitropropionic (3-NP) acid-treated rats | HD | Restored biochemical, behavioral, and cellular alterations | [200] |
|
| |||
| 3-Nitropropionic (3-NP) acid-treated rats | HD | ↑ body weight, ↑ locomotor activities, ↑ memory, ↑ antioxidant levels, ↓ lipid peroxides, ↓ nitrite, ↓ GFAP, ↓ AchE | [201] |
∗∗Rutin loaded magnetic nanoparticles were used in this experiment; 6-OHDA: 6-hydroxydopamine; AchE: acetylcholine esterase; BDNF: brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CAT: catalase; CREB: cAMP response element binding protein; DA: dopamine; doxorubicin: DOX; ERK1: extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1; GFAP: glial fibrillary acidic protein; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GSH: reduced glutathione; GSSG: glutathione disulfide; IL-10: interleukin 10; IL-6: interleukin 6; IL-8: interleukin 8; IL-1b: interleukin 1 beta; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; MDA: malondialdehyde; MMP: mitochondrial membrane potential; NF-κB: nuclear factor-kappaB; NSF: N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor; PTGS2: prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SOD: superoxide dismutase; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; TGFβ: transforming growth factor beta; TH: tyrosine hydroxylase; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α.