Table 7F.

Example welfare/behavioral criteria for assessment of stress: some key signs: mammals.

Behavioral sign	Cause/Problem
Compulsive i.e., repetitive, apparently functionless behaviors: e.g., pacing, figure of eights, circling, spinning, self-mutilation, over grooming	1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12
Withdrawal, reduced responses, lethargy, vocalization	1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12
Aggression to humans or conspecifics	1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10
Cowering, attempting to hide, attempts to dig/climb/escape from cage	1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10

Derived from reviewed literature (1, 8, 44, 57, 79, 81, 115, 116).

Cause/problem keys:

¹Overly restrictive/incorrect environment/inability to hide/retreat. ²Co-occupant aggression/harassment. ³Fear/defense. ⁴Pain/trauma/disease. ⁵Environmental stressor e.g., hyperthermia. ⁶Environmental stressor e.g., hypothermia. ⁷Environmental stressor e.g., hypoxia. ⁸Hunger. ⁹Environmental stressor e.g., incorrect humidity. ¹⁰Excessive handling. ¹¹Learned helplessness” (includes apparently normal behaviors in highly adverse conditions). ¹²Under-stimulation.