Table 1.
Main biomarkers of oxidative stress-induced damage.
| Damaged biomolecules | Markers (common abbreviation) | Biological sample | Methods | Distinctive features and sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| LIPIDS (POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS) | ||||
| F2-isoprostanes (F2-iso) | urine/serum/plasma/cells/ breath/CSF | GC-MS/MS LC-MS/MS ELISA | •[-] Specifically derived from oxidation of arachidonic acid •[-] Widely regarded as the best marker of lipid-peroxidation (Dalle-Donne et al., 2006) | |
| Malondialdehyde (MDA) | serum/plasma/urine/cells | GC-MS/MS LC-MS/MS HPLC-FD Spectrophotometric assay Spectrofluorimetric assay | •[-] Physiologic ketoaldehyde produced by lipid- peroxidation •[-]The most assessed marker of lipid-peroxidation •[-] Spectrophotometric/spectrofluorimetric assays lack of specificity and sensitivity •[-] Can easily form stable protein adducts (Dalle-Donne et al., 2006) | |
| 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) | serum/plasma/cells | GC/MS ELISA | •[-] Aldehyde produced by lipid-peroxidation •[-] Can easily form stable protein adducts (Valacchi et al., 2017) | |
| Lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) | serum/plasma | GC/MS Spectrophotometric assay Spectrofluorimetric assay | •[-] Relatively stable byproducts of lipid peroxidation •[-] Specificity/sensitivity problem of spectrophotometric/spectrofluorimetric methods | |
| 2-propenal (acrolein) | serum/plasma/cells | LC–MS–MS LC/GC–MS Immunoblot ELISA | •[-] The most abundant aldehydes produced by lipid-peroxidation •[-] Reacts with DNA, phospholipids and protein (Tully et al., 2014) | |
| Oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL) | serum/plasma | HPLC Spectrophotometric assay ELISA | •[-] Derived from oxidation of lipid component of LDL •[-] Well-established biomarker of cardiovascular disease risk •[-] The validity of oxLDL a marker of oxidative stress has been questioned (Frijhoff et al., 2015) | |
| PROTEINS | ||||
| Protein carbonyls | serum/plasma/CSF/cells | HPLC ELISA Immunoblot Spectrophotometric assays | •[-] Aldehydes and ketones produced from nonspecific oxidation of protein side chains •[-] Spectrophotometric and ELISA, although very unspecific, are the most frequently used assay methods (Dalle-Donne et al., 2006) | |
| Advanced Oxidation protein products (AOPP) | serum/plasma/urine | Spectrophotometric assays | •[-] Class of dityrosine-containing protein products •[-] Available high-throughput methods •[-] Analytical specificity problem (Cervellati et al., 2016) | |
| Nitrotyrosine (Tyr-NO2) | serum/plasma /urine | GC-MS/MS HPLC-MS/MS HPLC-ED ELISA | •[-] Stable byproduct of oxidation mediated peroxynitrite anion and nitrogen dioxide •[-] Specificity/sensitivity problem of immunological methods (Dalle-Donne et al., 2006) | |
| NUCLEIC ACIDS | ||||
| 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) | urine/serum/plasma/CSF/cells | GC-MS/MS HPLC-MS/MS ELISA | •[-] Major product of oxidative DNA damage (Goto et al., 2008) | |
| 8-hydroxyguanosine (8-OHG) | urine/serum/CSF/cells | HPLC-MS/MS HPLC ELISA | •[-] Major product of oxidative RNA damage (Henriksen et al., 2009) | |
| CARBOHYDRATES | ||||
| Advanced glycationend products (AGEs) | urine/plasma/serum/CSF/cells | LC-MS/MS HPLC ELISA Spectrophotometric assays | •[-] Byproducts of nonenzymatic reaction of reducing sugars with amino groups of lipids, DNA, and proteins •[-] Analytical methods are limited by high heterogeneity of AGEs (Frijhoff et al., 2015) | |
CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; ELISA, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay; GC, gas chromatography; MS, mass spectrometry; MS/MS, tandem mass spectrometry; LC, liquid chromatography; HPLC, high pressure liquid chromatography; FD, fluorimetric detection; ED, electrochemical detection.