Table 4.

Findings related to sensory modulation by NA.

Sensory area	Species and anesthesia (if applicable)	Significance	Reference
dLGN	Chloral hydrate/urethane anesthetized rat	NA or LC activation facilitates responses in dLGN; the facilitation of LGN response to LC stimulation is blocked by α1 but not β receptor antagonists	Rogawski and Aghajanian, 1980; Kayama et al., 1982
dLGN, dorsal, and ventral thalamus	Halothane anesthetized cat	Predominantly depression of responses by iontophoretic application of NA	Phillis et al., 1967; Phillis and Teběcis, 1967
V1	Nitrous oxide anesthetized cat	Bi-directional modulation. Enhanced SNR for modulated neurons	Kasamatsu and Heggelund, 1982
V1	Halothane anesthetized/nitrous oxide cat	LC stimulation results in both facilitation and inhibition of extracellular responses in V1, which vary by layer. Results from α1, α2, and β antagonists suggest that α receptors facilitate the responses while β receptor activation results in bi-directional modulation. No change in SNR	Sato et al., 1989
V1	Thiopental anesthetized cat	Iontophoretic NA application results in variable modulation of the responses and affects receptive field properties	McLean and Waterhouse, 1994
V1	Awake mouse	NA was found necessary for tonic depolarization with locomotion of layer 2/3 excitatory neurons	Polack et al., 2013
V1	Urethane anesthetized rat	LC activity precedes increases in cortical excitability	Safaai et al., 2015
V1	Halothane anesthetized rat	Iontophoretic application of NA enhances visual responses	Waterhouse et al., 1990
A1	Awake squirrel monkey	Iontophoretic NA application decreases evoked and spontaneous extracellular activity consistent with an increased SNR	Foote et al., 1975
A1	Urethane-anesthetized rat	Iontophoretic NA application induces bi-directional modulation, with the dominant effect a response decrease, α1-receptor mediated. No net change in SNR across the population	Manunta and Edeline, 1997
CN	Awake bat	Enhances “temporal contrast,” i.e., the temporal precision of the response	Kössl and Vater, 1989
S1 and ventral posteriomedial thalamus	Awake rat	Tonic vs. phasic activation differentially modulates responses in the somatosensory processing hierarchy	Devilbiss and Waterhouse, 2011
S1	Isoflurane anesthetized rat	Intracellular recordings in vivo: NA blockage reduces up-states in neurons	Constantinople and Bruno, 2011
S1	Urethane anesthetized and awake rat	Iontophoretic NA application suppresses spontaneous and glutamate evoked activity	Armstrong-James and Fox, 1983; Bassant et al., 1990
S1	Halothane anesthetized rat	Variable effects on rates and SNR for iontophoretic NA application; phasic LC stimulation predominantly enhances responses. NA depletion abolishes this modulation	Waterhouse and Woodward, 1980; Waterhouse et al., 1980, 1998
Piriform cortex	Urethane anesthetized rat	Mainly enhancement of odor responses in piriform cortex with LC stimulation	Bouret and Sara, 2002
Olfactory bulb	Urethane anesthetized rat	Infusion of NA and stimulation of the LC decreases responses at low and high levels but not intermediate levels of stimulation/NA	Manella et al., 2017