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. 2018 Jun 5;27(6):853–866. doi: 10.1177/0963689718755778

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© The Author(s) 2018

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).

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Fig. 2. — Microenvironment imbalance of spinal cord injury at different level.

The microenvironment at the molecule, cell and tissue level is shown separately. The tissue level imbalance includes hemorrhage and ischemia, glial scar formation, demyelination and re-myelination; the cellular level imbalance involves an imbalance in the differentiation of endogenous stem cells and the transformation phenotypes of microglia and macrophages; the molecular level includes an imbalance of neurotrophic factors and their pro-peptides, cytokines, and chemokines.

BDNF: brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CXCR4: C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4; CXCL12: C-X-C motif chemokine 12; ICAM1: intercellular adhesion molecule; IL: interleukin; LIF: leukocyte inhibitory factor; NGF: nerve growth factor; NT-3: neurotrophin-3; SDF-1α: stromal cell-derived factor 1α; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor alpha; VCAM1: vascular cell adhesion protein.