Table 1.

Overweight and obesity comorbidities in different physiological systems.

Physiological system	Comorbidities	References
Cardiovascular	Stroke Myocardial infarction Angina Coronary heart disease Cardiac failure Hypertension Deep vein thrombosis Pulmonary embolism Dyslipidaemia	Wilson et al., 2002; Stein et al., 2011; Global Burden of Metabolic Risk Factors for Chronic Diseases Collaboration et al., 2014; Writing Group et al., 2014; Klovaite et al., 2015; Aune et al., 2016
Gastrointestinal	Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease Gallbladder and pancreatic disease Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease Liver, colorectal, oesophageal, gallbladder and pancreatic cancers	Chen et al., 2012; Eslick, 2012; Stinton and Shaffer, 2012; DiBaise and Foxx-Orenstein, 2013
Endocrine	Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus Gestational diabetes mellitus Polycystic ovary syndrome	Flegal et al., 2007; Arendas et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2008
Genitourinary	Chronic kidney disease/chronic renal failure Kidney stones Renal and prostate cancers Urinary incontinence Erectile dysfunction Buried penis	Bump et al., 1992; Esposito et al., 2004; Ejerblad et al., 2006; Flegal et al., 2007; Polednak, 2008; Munkhaugen et al., 2009; Pestana et al., 2009; Stinton and Shaffer, 2012; Grima and Dixon, 2013
Pulmonary	Obstructive sleep apnoea Obesity hypoventilation syndrome Asthma Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease	Guerra et al., 2002; Steuten et al., 2006; Eisner et al., 2007; O'Donnell et al., 2014
Musculoskeletal	Osteoarthritis Spinal disc disorders and lower back pain Tendons, fascia and cartilage disorders Foot pain Impaired mobility	Molenaar et al., 2008; Tukker et al., 2009; McAdams DeMarco et al., 2011; Grima and Dixon, 2013
Reproductive	Menstrual disorders Pregnancy complications, such as miscarriage and intrauterine foetal death Birth defects Infertility Breast (post-menopause), endometrial and ovarian cancers	Bianchini et al., 2002; Arendas et al., 2008; Polednak, 2008; Grima and Dixon, 2013
Mental/Psychological	Dementia Depression Eating disorders Reduced health-related quality of life Psychosocial stigma and poor self esteem	Beydoun et al., 2008; Molenaar et al., 2008; Grima and Dixon, 2013; Hilbert et al., 2014
Integumentary	Increased sweat gland activity Impaired epidermal barrier repair Striae Cellulitis Hyperpigmentation Intertrigo Lymphoedema	Löffler et al., 2002; Yosipovitch et al., 2004, 2007
Immune	Disruption of lymphoid tissue integrity Changes in leukocyte development, phenotypes and activity Decreased immunity from infection Decreased efficacy of vaccines Increased pro-inflammatory markers, such as IL6 and TNFα	Ghanim et al., 2004; Bremer et al., 2011; Kanneganti and Dixit, 2012; Sheridan et al., 2012