Table 1.
Characteristics of the sample
| Child characteristics at birth: | N | Mean/N | SD/% | Range |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex (boys) | 239 | 116 | 48.5 | |
| Length of gestation (weeks) | 239 | 40.0 | 1.3 | 35.6–42.4 |
| Birth weight (g) | 239 | 3571 | 472 | 1890–4995 |
| Birth length (cm) | 239 | 50.3 | 1.9 | 43.0–55.0 |
| Birth order | 239 | |||
| First | 136 | 56.9 | ||
| Second or later | 103 | 43.1 | ||
| Child characteristics in adolescence: | ||||
| Chronological age (years) | 239 | 12.4 | 0.5 | 11.1–13.2 |
| DNA methylation age (years) | 239 | 12.1 | 3.1 | 5.4–22.5 |
| Weight (kg) | 238 | 48.7 | 10.8 | 23.2–91.1 |
| Weight-for-age (SD) | 238 | 0.3 | 1.0 | − 3.6 – 3.0 |
| Height (cm) | 238 | 156.2 | 7.5 | 134.5–177.0 |
| Height-for-age (SD) | 238 | 0.2 | 1.0 | − 2.7 – 2.5 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 238 | 19.8 | 3.44 | 12.8–34.5 |
| Body-mass-index-for-age (SD) | 238 | 0.3 | 1.0 | − 3.1 – 2.7 |
| Target height (SD) | 238 | 173.4 | 7.6 | 153.9–191.7 |
| Mid-parental target height (SD) minus height-for-age (SD) | 238 | 0.5 | 1.0 | − 1.9 – 3.5 |
| Tanner Staging Questionnaire | ||||
| Pubic hair development | 233 | |||
| I | 50 | 21.5 | ||
| II | 83 | 35.6 | ||
| III | 71 | 30.5 | ||
| IV | 29 | 12.4 | ||
| Breast/genitalia development | 234 | |||
| I | 18 | 7.7 | ||
| II | 81 | 34.6 | ||
| III | 83 | 35.5 | ||
| IV | 52 | 22.2 | ||
| Pubertal development scale | 236 | |||
| No development | 139 | 58.9 | ||
| Development barely begun | 74 | 31.4 | ||
| Development definitely under way | 23 | 9.7 | ||
| Diurnal salivary cortisol | ||||
| ln(upon awakening) | 218 | 1.7 | 0.6 | − 1.7 – 3.6 |
| ln(awakening response) | 218 | 0.4 | 0.7 | − 0.9 – 6.3 |
| ln(Nadir) | 218 | − 0.9 | 0.9 | − 2.3 – 1.8 |
| ln(response to dexamethasone suppression test) | 213 | 0.4 | 0.8 | −v5.2 – 3.0 |
| Psychiatric problems (> 82nd percentile borderline clinically significant problems) | 222 | |||
| Total behavior problems | 38 | 17.1 | ||
| Internalizing problems | 18 | 8.1 | ||
| Externalizing problems | 25 | 11.3 | ||
| Intelligence quotient, estimated (M = 100; SD = 15)* | ||||
| General | 235 | 105.8 | 14.8 | 57–140 |
| Verbal | 236 | 111.4 | 17.2 | 57–153 |
| Performance | 237 | 100.9 | 19.7 | 42–141 |
| Maternal characteristics: | ||||
| Age at delivery (years) | 239 | 30.4 | 4.4 | 20.0–43.0 |
| Weight at delivery (kg) | 237 | 63.4 | 9.9 | 45.0–98.0 |
| Height (cm) | 239 | 166.8 | 5.5 | 151.0–180.0 |
| Body mass index at delivery (kg/m2) | 237 | 22.8 | 3.5 | 16.5–36.0 |
| Mode of delivery | 239 | |||
| Vaginal | 214 | 89.5 | ||
| Cesarean | 25 | 10.5 | ||
| Alcohol consumption during pregnancy | 239 | |||
| No | 199 | 83.3 | ||
| Yes | 40 | 16.7 | ||
| Smoking during pregnancy | 239 | |||
| No | 217 | 90.8 | ||
| Yes | 22 | 9.2 | ||
| Consumption of glycyrrhizin in licorice during pregnancy | 239 | |||
| Low (0–249 mg/week) | 174 | 72.8 | ||
| Medium (250–499 mg/week) | 33 | 13.8 | ||
| High (≥ 500 mg/week) | 32 | 13.4 | ||
| Age at menarche (years) | 228 | |||
| Mothers of girls | 120 | 12.69 | 1.39 | 9.0–16.0 |
| Mothers of boys | 108 | 12.70 | 1.19 | 10.0–16.0 |
| Paternal/parental characteristics: | ||||
| Paternal height (cm) | 236 | 180.07 | 6.38 | 157.00–200.00 |
| Highest educational level of either parent at child’s adolescence follow-up | 239 | |||
| Secondary or less | 25 | 10.5 | ||
| Vocational | 59 | 24.7 | ||
| University degree | 155 | 64.9 | ||
Note: *3, 3, and 7 children had estimated general, verbal, and performance intelligence quotient below 70 because of difficulties in visual processing