Table 3.
The relationship of urbanization and individual characteristics to neighborhood social capital; coefficient (standard error)
| Independent variable | Model 2: Neighborhood-level social trust | Model 3: Neighborhood-level social reciprocity | Model 4: Neighborhood-level social group membership |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed effects | Coeff. (SE) | Coeff. (SE) | Coeff. (SE) |
| Urbanization rate | −0.172*** (0.039) | − 0.244*** (0.072) | − 0.113*** (0.031) |
| Male (ref: female) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.005** (0.002) | −0.007*** (0.002) |
| Age | 0.000*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | 0.001*** (0.000) |
| Marital status (ref. = single, divorced, or widowed) | |||
| Married and living with a spouse | −0.001 (0.001) | 0.003 (0.002) | −0.004* (0.002) |
| Married and not living with a spouse | −0.002 (0.002) | 0.002 (0.004) | −0.002 (0.003) |
| Education (ref: primary school or less) | |||
| High school | −0.001 (0.001) | −0.020*** (0.002) | 0.023*** (0.002) |
| College or more | 0.001 (0.002) | −0.052*** (0.003) | 0.054*** (0.003) |
| Employed (ref: unemployed) | −0.003 (0.002) | −0.007* (0.004) | 0.002 (0.003) |
| Local hukou (ref: non-local hukou) | 0.013*** (0.002) | 0.030*** (0.003) | −0.002*** (0.001) |
| Urban areas (ref: rural areas) | −0.007 (0.006) | −0.144 (0.100) | − 0.214 (0.202) |
| Smoking status (ref: non-smoker) | −0.002 (0.001) | − 0.002 (0.002) | − 0.001 (0.002) |
| Alcohol use (ref: no) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.002 (0.002) | − 0.002 (0.002) |
| Medical insurance (ref: none) | −0.000 (0.002) | 0.007** (0.003) | −0.006** (0.002) |
| Physical health status (ref: no disease) | −0.002 (0.002) | −0.010*** (0.003) | 0.004* (0.002) |
| Logarithm of physical exercise time | −0.001*** (0.000) | − 0.004*** (0.000) | 0.002*** (0.000) |
| Logarithm of average annual household income per household member | 0.002*** (0.000) | −0.008*** (0.001) | 0.011*** (0.001) |
| Individual-level social capital | |||
| Neighbors are extremely/very trustworthy (ref: neighbors are somewhat/slightly/not at all trustworthy) | 0.028*** (0.001) | 0.004** (0.002) | 0.002** (0.001) |
| Neighbors always/often help one another (ref: neighbors sometimes/seldom/never help one another) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.018*** (0.002) | 0.089*** (0.002) |
| Number of types of voluntary groups | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.072*** (0.002) | 0.015*** (0.002) |
| Logarithm of average annual neighborhood income per neighborhood resident | 0.003*** (0.001) | −0.045*** (0.002) | 0.001*** (0.000) |
| Constant | 0.860*** (0.021) | 0.655*** (0.037) | −0.067*** (0.017) |
| Random effects | Coeff. | Coeff. | Coeff. |
| Var (prefecture-level constant) | 0.008*** | 0.023*** | 0.005*** |
| Var (residual) | 0.004*** | 0.012*** | 0.007*** |
| Number of prefectures | 158 | 158 | 158 |
| Number of respondents | 20,861 | 20,861 | 20,861 |
| Log-likelihood | 26,536 | 15,849 | 22,164 |
| AIC | −53,026 | −31,652 | −44,282 |
* = p < 0.10, ** = p < 0.05, *** = p < 0.01. All continuous independent variables and covariates were grand-mean centered