Table A1.

Behaviours used to determine agonistic and affiliative relationships outside the play context

Behaviour		Definition
Rank indicator behaviours
Dominant behaviours
	Stand tall	A straightens up to full height, with a rigid posture and tail; may include raised hackles, ears erect and tail perpendicular or above the back
	Stand over	A is standing over R's body, with all four paws on the ground, with the tail held high. R may have either the whole body or just the forepaws under A's belly/side
	No-play paw on	A places one or both forepaws on R's back; outside of the play context
	Ride up	A mounts R from behind or from the side, exhibiting a thrusting motion
	Head on	A approaches R's shoulder/back and puts its head on it. Formation usually looks like a capital ‘T’
	No-play muzzle bite	A grabs the muzzle of R either softly or with enough pressure to make the other whimper; outside of the play context
Submissive behaviours
	Crouch	A lowers the head, sometimes bending the legs, arching the back, lowering the tail between the hindlegs and avoiding eye contact
	Passive submission	A lies on its back showing its stomach and holding its tail between its legs. The ears are held back and close to the head and A raises a hindleg for inguinal presentation
	Active submission	A has its tail tucked between the hindlegs sometimes wagging it while in a crouched position (with hindquarters lowered) and may attempt to paw and lick the side of R's muzzle. The behaviour may include urination
	Withdrawing	A withdraws from R moving away slowly in the opposite direction, displaying a submissive posture. It occurs when A has been threatened or attacked by R, or a fight has taken place
	Flee	A runs away from R with tail tucked between the legs and body ducked. It occurs when A has been threatened or attacked by R, or after a fight
	Avoidance	In response to R reducing the distance to it, A moves away displaying a submissive posture. A may also look at the individual it is trying to avoid
Aggressive behaviours
	Threat	A orients towards R performing one or more of the following behaviours: staring at, curling of the lips, baring of the canines, raising the hackles, snarling, growling and barking, sometimes with the tail perpendicular or above the back
	Attack	A runs into or jumps onto R with tail, ears and sometimes hackles up, often with bites at the neck
	Knock down	A strikes R sharply with the chest or shoulder so that R falls to the ground
	Pin	A grabs R at the neck or muzzle, forcing it down to the ground and holding it there
	Fight	A and R engage in reciprocal biting and aggressive physical contact
	Chase	A runs after R, exhibiting threatening behaviours (see ‘threat’ above)
	Jaw spar	A and R ‘fencing’ with open jaws
	Snapping	A snaps its teeth into the air towards R
Affiliative behaviours
	Grooming	A nips, licks or scratches the fur or skin, occasionally the neck of R
	Lie friendly	A lies on its back, tail-wags, sometimes kicking with the foreleg against R, often with open mouth
	Stand friendly	A stands with tail perpendicular to or below the plane of the back, wagging it, ears pointed forwards, while R is approaching it or orienting/looking towards it
	Social sniff	A sniffs R's body part except its anogenital area
	Body rubbing	A rubs its body against any part of R's body
	Body contact	A stays (for at least 10 s) with at least part of its body in contact with R; both A and R have a relaxed position

Adapted from the Wolf Science Center Social Behavior Ethogram. A: wolf performing the behaviour; R: wolf receiving the behaviour.