Table 3.
Population/sample characteristics, cancer information seeking behaviors, and cancer-related health outcomes
| First Author (Year) |
Population/ Subpopulation (Sample Size) |
Sample Characteristics | Cancer Information Seeking Behavioral & Psychosocial Factors |
Cancer-Related Health Outcomes & Theoretical Frameworks |
Cancer Type |
HINTS (Year) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hay (2015) | Participants 18+ years old who completed the colorectal cancer mental module (1,789/1,937) 148=missing data |
Race/ethnicity: 7.8% Hispanic 11.6% Foreign born 20.3 ± 1.58 years in USa SES: 57.3% Some college+ 24.9% ≤$29K Cancer History: 10.3% family history of colorectal cancer |
Lower cancer/health information seeking summary score was positively associated with ambiguity about CRC risk perceptions. Self-efficacy (n.s). |
7.5% did not know their comparative CRC risk 8.7% did not know their absolute CRC risk |
CRC | HINTS 2 (2005) |
| Chen (2014) | 55+ year old adults (1,818) |
Race/ethnicity: 78% White 10% Hispanic SES: 56% Some college+ 58% ≤$35K Cancer History: 66% family history of cancer |
Online cancer information seeking was positively associated with CRC screening adherence. Seeking experiences (n.s.) Self-efficacy (n.s.) |
64% were compliant based on the following CRC screening guidelines:
|
CRC | HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Madadi (2014) | Adherent and non-adherent women >40 years old (2,370) |
Race/ethnicity: 77% White SES: 56% Some college+ 36% ≤$25,000/year 49% Employed Cancer History: 75% Family member had cancer |
The association between cancer information seeking and mammography attitudes/screening adherence was not statistically significant. |
70% adherent
were thinking about getting a mammogram |
Breast cancer |
HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Kontos (2012) | Online and offline cancer information seekers & non-seekers (7,674) |
Race/ethnicity: 65% NH White 12% Hispanic SES: 60% Some college+ 30% <$35,000/year Cancer History: Not reported |
Online cancer information seeking was positively associated with HPV vaccine awareness and knowledge, which was significantly higher compared to non-seekers. Offline vs. online (n.s.) |
70% heard of HPV vaccine 70% HPV was a STI 75% HPV cause cervical cancer (Note: Awareness/knowledge highest among online seekers) Structural Influence Model of Communication Inequalities |
Cervical cancer |
HINTS 3 (2007) |
| Ortiz (2011) | Puerto Rican adults (611) |
Race/ethnicity: Not reported SES: 44.5% College+d 40.2% Employed Cancer History: Not reported |
Cancer information seekers were more aware of genetic testing than non-seekers. |
55.8% had heard of direct-to- consumer genetic tests 4.3% reported ever having a genetic test. |
Genetic Testing |
HINTS PR (2009) |
| Kealey (2010) | US adults (5,586) |
Race/ethnicity: 76.9% White 9.3% Hispanic SES: 60.3% Some college+ 40.7% <$35,000/year Cancer History: Not reported |
Cancer information seekers experienced significantly less cancer information overload than non-seekers. Cancer information seeking was not significantly associated with cancer beliefs or risk perceptions. |
Cancer information overload (i.e., ambiguity about how to prevent cancer), beliefs about behavioral/lifestyle cancer risk factors, and perceptions of comparative risk of getting cancer were assessed. |
All cancers |
HINTS 2 (2005) |
| Zhao (2010) | US adults (5,586) |
Race/ethnicity: 69.9% White 13.0% Hispanic SES: 55.6% College+d 58.6% Employed Cancer History: 11.4% Had cancer |
Cancer information seeking/self-efficacy was inversely associated with having undesirable beliefs about cancer among Whites only. Surrogate seeking (n.s.) |
Undesirable cancer beliefs were compared between US and foreign born Whites and Hispanics:
|
All cancers |
HINTS 2 (2005) |
| Finney-Rutten (2009) | Smokers (2,257) |
Sociodemographics: 59.7% NH White 13.9% Hispanic SES: 41.8% College+ 38.9% <$25,000/year Cancer History: 11.4% Had cancer |
The relationship between online cancer/health information seeking and smoking status was not statistically significant. |
Cancer communication outcomes were assessed among moderate-heavy, light, and intermittent tobacco users. |
Lung cancer (smoking is also a risk factor for other types of cancer) |
HINTS 1 (2003) & HINTS 2 (2005) |
| Han (2009) | CRC (n=1,788), skin (n=1,594), and lung (n=1,777) cancer mental modules participants (5,159) |
Race/ethnicity: 79.9% White SES: 51.7% College+ Cancer History: Not reported |
Cancer information seeking was inversely associated with ambiguity about CRC prevention. Skin cancer (n.s.) Lung cancer (n.s.) |
Ambiguity about CRC, skin, and lung cancer prevention was assessed. |
CRC, skin, and lung cancer |
HINTS 2 (2005) |
| Hay (2009) | Skin cancer mental module participants (1,633) |
Race/ethnicity: 66.9% NH White 14.7% Hispanic SES: 52.6% College+ Cancer History: 9.9% Family member had skin cancer 5.1% Melanoma 4.8% Non-melanoma |
Skin cancer information seeking was a positively associated with some protective behaviors (i.e., using sunscreen, wearing sun-protective clothing). Skin cancer knowledge (n.s.) Skin cancer beliefs (n.s.) Staying in the shade (n.s.) |
Skin cancer knowledge, beliefs, and protective behaviors were assessed. Protective behaviors were:
|
Skin cancer |
HINTS 2 (2005) |
| Kaphingst (2009) | US adults (n=5,813) |
Race/ethnicity: 75% NH White SES: 60% <$50,000/year Cancer history: 13% Had cancer 65% Family member had cancer |
Positive beliefs about the relationship between knowing one’s family history/genes and cancer risk reduction was positively association with cancer information seeking. |
N/A – Cancer information seeking was the outcome of interest |
All cancers |
HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Zhao (2009) | Smokers who completed the lung cancer mental module (n=340) |
Race/ethnicity: Race/Ethnicity SES: Education Cancer history: Not reported (Descriptive statistics were not reported) |
Cancer information seeking was positively associated with absolute risk, the interaction of absolute* comparative risk, response self-efficacy about lung cancer, and self-efficacy. Comparative risk (n.s.) |
Lung cancer risk perceptions and response efficacy (i.e., not much one can do to lower their lung cancer risk) were assessed. Risk Perception Attitude (RPA) Framework |
Lung cancer (smoking is also a risk factor for other cancers) |
HINTS 2 (2005) |
| McQueen (2008) | 50+ year old adults (2,519) |
Race/ethnicity: 74.5% NH White 6.7% Hispanic SES: Not reported Cancer History: Not reported |
Cancer information seeking (including surrogate seeking) was not significantly associated with cancer beliefs (i.e., worry, risk perceptions). |
Cancer worry and risk perceptions were assessed. |
Breast, CRC, prostate cancer |
HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Niederdeppe 2008 | US adults (n=5,585) |
Race/ethnicity: Race/ethnicity were not reported SES: 57.5% Some college+ Cancer History: 11.3% Had cancer 71.5% Family member had cancer |
Health knowledge was positively associated with cancer information seeking. Interactions between cancer news events and education, health knowledge, and social networks were also positively associated with cancer information seeking. |
N/A – Cancer information seeking was the outcome of interest Knowledge Gap Theory |
Breast and lung cancer, Hodgkin’s lymphoma |
HINTS 2 (2005) |
| Shim (2008) | Online adults (3,982) |
Race/ethnicity: 76% NH White 8% Hispanic SES: 75% Some college+ Cancer History: 10% Had cancer 65% Family member had cancer |
Online cancer information seeking was positively associated with cancer knowledge. |
Cancer knowledge about preventive behaviors/lifestyle factors and screening was assessed. Knowledge Gap Theory |
All cancers |
HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Arora (2007) | Cancer information seekers, surrogate seekers, and non-seekers (6,369) |
Race/ethnicity: 71.8% NH White 11.7% Hispanic SES: 51.1% Some college+ 59.8% Employed Cancer History: 10.9% Had cancer 54.2% Family member had cancer |
Cancer information seeking experiences were positively associated with cancer beliefs. |
Cancer information seeking experiences and the following cancer beliefs were examined:
|
All cancers |
HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Kim (2007) | US adults (n=6,369) |
Race/ethnicity: 76.2% NH White 7.3% Hispanic SES: 29.9% Some college 24.7% <$25,000 60.7% Employed Cancer history: 5.3% had cancer 44.3% Family member had cancer Descriptive statistics reported for overloaded |
Health literacy was inversely associated with cancer information overload. However, seekers who were concerned about the quality of the information they found were more likely to feel overloaded. |
N/A – Cancer information overload was the outcome of interest National Center for Research on Evaluation Standards and Student Testing Model of Problem Solving National Trends Survey Framework Precaution Adoption Process Model |
All cancers |
HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Cerully (2006) | US adults who reported consuming <5 servings of fruits and vegetables daily (5,265) |
Descriptive statistics were not reported |
Nonlisters (i.e., did not list F/V consumption for self or others) were unexpectedly more likely to be seekers, but less likely to trust sources of cancer information as expected. |
Cancer communication, knowledge, and beliefs were examined among adults who consumed less than five servings of fruits and vegetables daily. |
All cancers |
HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Ford (2006) | 45+ year old adults (3,131) |
Race/ethnicity: 77.9% NH White 7.6% Hispanic SES: 47.6% Some college 31.2% <$25,000 Cancer history: 16.7% had cancer 67.3% Family member had cancer |
Non-seekers were less knowledgeable about CRC screening |
Knowledge of CRC screening recommendations was examined |
CRC | HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Ling (2006) | >50 years old adults (2,670) |
Race/ethnicity: 80.0% White Hispanic not reported SES: 28.1% Some college+ Income not reported Cancer History: Not reported |
Both seekers and those who had surrogate seekers were more likely to be up-to-date on CRC screening. |
CRC cancer screening adherence was assessed. |
CRC | HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Shim (2006) | US adults (n=6,369) |
Race/ethnicity: 70.3% White 12.7% Hispanic SES: 31.3% Some college+ Cancer History: 12.0% Had cancer 62.8% Family member had cancer |
Cancer prevention knowledge, lifestyle behaviors, and screening adherence were positively associated with cancer information seeking and scanning. However, knowledge was inversely associated with the interaction of seeking*scanning behaviors. |
N/A – Seeking and scanning behaviors were the outcomes of interest |
CRC, breast, and prostate |
HINTS 1 (2003) |
| Finney-Rutten (2005) | 50+ year old males (927) |
Race/ethnicity: 79.5% NH White 7.0% Hispanic SES: 27.8% ≤$25,000 49.6% Some college+ Cancer History: Not reported |
Attention/seeking was not associated with PSA testing |
PSA testing | Prostate cancer |
HINTS 1 (2003) |
Footnotes:
a
Mean ± Standard Error;
b
Mean ± Standard Deviation;
c
Includes cohabitating (or living with a partner);
d
Does not include vocational/technical training;
AOR=adjusted odds ratio with 95% confidence interval; CRC=colorectal cancer; FOBT=fecal occult blood test; NH=non-Hispanic; NR=not reported; STI=sexually transmitted infection |
*
p<0.05;
**
p<0.01;
***
p<0.001