Table 3.

Summary of quantitative evaluations with a comparison group ($n=14$).

Country	Reference	Intervention description	Intervention time frame	Main outcomes
				Latrine ownership	Latrine quality	Open defecation practice	Health impacts
Study design: longitudinal randomized controlled trial
Ghana	Crocker et al. 2016a	$\text{CLTS}+\text{training}$ natural leaders vs. CLTS	2012–2014	$+18.3\text{pp}$ vs. conventional CLTS	Latrines in both CLTS groups less durable than preexisting latrines	$-19.9\text{pp}$ in $\text{CLTS}+\text{training}$ natural leaders group
India	Pattanayak et al. 2009	TSC with IEC vs. control	2006	$+29\%$; $+34\%$ for subsidy group and $+21\%$ for no-subsidy group vs. control
India	Patil et al. 2014	TSC with IEC vs. control	Not reported	$+19\text{pp}$ vs control (41% vs. 23% control)		$-9\text{to}10\text{pp}$ among adults	No significant difference in diarrhea, HCGI, anemia, or growth outcomes
India	Dickinson et al. 2015	TSC with IEC vs. control	2006	$+27\text{pp}$ (35% vs. 15% control)			Reduction in self-reported diarrhea not significant
Indonesia	Cameron et al. 2013	$\text{CLTS}+\text{sanitation}$ marketing vs. control	2008–2011	$+4.0\text{pp}$ vs. baseline; $+31\%$ vs. control		$+6\text{pp}$ ($-17\%$) in nonpoor households	$-1.4\text{pp}$ ($-30\%$) in diarrhea; decrease in parasitic infection; increases in height and weight among nonpoor households without sanitation at baseline
Indonesia	Borja-Vega 2014	$\text{CLTS}+\text{sanitation}$ marketing (subgroup analysis) vs. control	2008–2011			$-20.6\%$ in some ethnic groups; not significant among female-headed households	$-5.8\%$ diarrhea (children $<5\mathrm{y}$) in female-headed households; significant increase, height for age, head circumference in Madurese ethnic group; other impacts not significant
Mali	Pickering et al. 2015	CLTS vs. control	Not reported	$+32\text{pp}$ vs. control group	CLTS latrines $>2$ times more likely to have cover, less likely to have flies	$-23\text{pp}$ among adult women ($-71\%$); $-24\text{pp}$ ($-71\%$) among adult men; $-43\text{pp}$ ($-49\%$) among children 5–10 y; $-43\text{pp}$ ($-51\%$) among children $<5\mathrm{y}$	No difference in diarrheal prevalence; $+0.18$ height-for-age z-score; lower likelihood of childhood stunting (35% vs. 41%); 22% children under-weight vs. 26% control
Mozambique	Godfrey et al. 2014	$\text{CLTS}+\text{safe}$ water vs. control	2008–2013	1 million new users			$-29\%$ Self-reported water-related diseases between 2008–2010
Tanzania	Briceño et al. 2015	$\text{CLTS vs. CLTS}+\text{handwashing}$ vs. control	2009–2011	$\mathrm{+}12.4\text{pp}$ ($+33\%$) vs. control	No difference across groups	$-12\text{pp}$ ($-52\%$)	No significant impacts
Study design: longitudinal quasi-experimental design
Ethiopia	Crocker et al. 2016b	Teacher-facilitated vs. health extension worker–facilitated CLTS	2012–2014	$\mathrm{+}9.0\text{pp}$ in conventional CLTS vs. teacher-facilitated CLTS	Both interventions improved floors, superstructure, cleanliness, handwashing materials	$-9.2\text{pp}$ in teacher-facilitated CLTS
Study design: single group, baseline vs. end line
Kenya	Schlegelmilch et al. 2016	$\text{CLTS}+\text{other}$ WaSH components	2007–2010	$\mathrm{+}24\text{pp}$ (43% vs. 19% baseline)
Philippines	UNICEF 2016	PhATS	2014–2016	$\mathrm{+}12.6\text{pp}$ (76.3% end line vs. 63.7% baseline) using improved nonshared facility		No significant change vs. baseline (15.2%)
Study design: comparative cross-sectional
Ethiopia	BDS-Center for Development Research 2016	CLTSH vs. control	2012–2015	60.8% latrine use in intervention vs. 58% in control		27.4% in intervention vs. 33.0% in control	24.8% self-reported diarrhea prevalence in children in intervention vs. 30% in control
Kenya	Makotsi et al. 2016	CLTS vs. control				Not reported 6.7% in intervention vs. 74.6% in control	11.1% two-week diarrhea prevalence in intervention vs. 21.6% in control

Abbreviations: CLTS, community-led total sanitation; CLTSH, $\text{CLTS}+\text{hygiene}$; IEC, information education and communication; pp, percentage point; PhATS, Philippines Approach to Total Sanitation; TSC, Total Sanitation Campaign; WaSH, Water, sanitation, and hygiene.