TABLE 2.
Integrative reference neural space of arousal
| Brain region | Acronym | W.A. | Au.A. | Aff.A. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brainstem: | ||||
| mesencephalic reticular nucleus | MRN | |||
| cuneiform nucleus | CUN | |||
| pontine reticular nucleus, caudal part | PRNc | |||
| gigantocellular reticular nucleus | GRN | |||
| parvicellular reticular nucleus | PARN | |||
| medullary reticular nucleus, dorsal part | MDRNd | |||
| pedunculopontine (“pedunculotegmental”) nucleus | PPN | |||
| laterodorsal tegmental nucleus | LDT | |||
| superior central nucleus (“median”) raphe, lateral part | CS1 | |||
| superior central nucleus (“median”) raphe, medial part | CSm | |||
| dorsal nucleus raphe | DR | |||
| nucleus raphe pallidus | RPA | |||
| nucleus raphe obscurus | RO | |||
| locus coeruleus | LC | |||
| ventral tegmental area | VTA | |||
| parabrachial nucleus, ventral lateral part | PBlv | |||
| parabrachial nucleus, external medial part | PBme | |||
| subcoeruleus nucleus | SLC | |||
| periaqueductal gray, ventrolateral division | PAGvl | |||
| nucleus of the solitary tract, central part | NTSce | |||
| nucleus of the solitary tract, lateral part | NTS1 | |||
| nucleus of the solitary tract, medial part | NTSm | |||
| Hvnothalamus: | ||||
| tuberomammillary nucleus, dorsal part | TMd | |||
| tuberomammillary nucleus, ventral part | TMv | |||
| lateral hypothalamic area | LHA | |||
| Thalamus: | ||||
| reticular nucleus | RT | |||
| intralaminar nuclei | ILM | |||
| Basal forebrain: | ||||
| nucleus accumbens | ACB | |||
| substantia innominata | SI | |||
| diagonal band of Broca | db | |||
| Other subcortical areas: | ||||
| basolateral nucleus amygdala, anterior part | BLAa | |||
| basolateral nucleus amygdala, posterior part | BLAp | |||
| basomedial nucleus amygdala, anterior part | BMAa | |||
| basomedial nucleus amygdala, posterior part | BMAp | |||
| central nucleus amygdala, medial part | CEAm | * | ||
| central nucleus amygdala, lateral part | CEA1 | * | ||
| medial nucleus amygdala, anterodorsal part | MEAad | |||
| medial nucleus amygdala, anteroventral part | MEAav | |||
| field CA1 hippocampus | CA1 | |||
| field CA2 hippocampus | CA2 | |||
| field CA3 hippocampus | CA3 | |||
| Cortical areas: | ||||
| entorhinal area, medial part, ventral zone | ENTmv | |||
| piriform area | PIR | |||
| agranular insular area, ventral part | AIv | |||
| anterior cingulate area, dorsal part | ACAd | |||
| anterior cingulate area, ventral part | ACAv | |||
| infralimbic area | I LA | |||
| prelimbic area | PL | |||
| primary motor area | MOp | |||
| secondary motor areas | MOs | |||
| posterior cingulate cortex | PCC | |||
| precuneus | PCUN | |||
| medial prefrontal cortex | mPFC |
Note. The table lists a set of neural nodes that that been generally implicated in wakeful arousal (W.A.), autonomic arousal (Au.A.), and affective arousal. (Aff. A.), as pooled across several references [23, 24, 27–29, 35, 49, 50, 55, 71, 77, 149–151, 155–163]. We note that the table is primarily a schematic representation of an integrative neural reference space for arousal. Figure 1 provides a graph representation of the above set of regions to illustrate how nodes may form functional networks that give rise to different varieties of arousal. Much work remains to be done to determine the precise role of many of these nodes across varieties of arousal.
For example, the amygdala is involved in sleep (REM sleep atonia), yet not strictly in promoting and maintaining wakefulness.