. 2018 Jun 22;18(7):2010. doi: 10.3390/s18072010

Table 3.

Characteristics of the developed immunoassays using electrochemical ELISA.

Probe	Immunosensor Conditions	Characteristics	Ref.
[DP]: anti-HER2-HRP [Anal]: HER2 [DM]: HQ	[Tran]: amperometry at −280 mV [IC]: (i) anal for 2 min at RT, (ii) [DP] for 20 min [MC]: 2.5 mm H₂O₂ with HQ in citrate buffer	[L]: 1 and 200 µg/mL, [LgS] [DL]: 1 µg/mL [S]: 18.23 µA/(µg/mL) [SL]: 3 weeks [CR]: 0.9591	[63]
[DP]: anti-CEA-HRP/AuNPs-PAN@CNTs [Anal]: CEA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: DPV in 0.2 to −0.8 V, [PA] 50 mV [IC]: (i) CEA, (ii) [DP] for 55 min at 37 °C, sequentially [MC]: 4 mM H₂O₂ in 5.0 mL PBS	[L]: (i) 0.02–3.0 ng/mL, (ii) 3.0–80 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 0.008 ng/mL [S]: (i) 13.9465 µA/(ng/mL), (ii) 0.7342 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 30 days [CR]: (i) 0.9875, (ii) 0.9960	[47]
[DP]: AuNP–PAMAM dendrimer/PSA–aptamer-HRP [Anal]: PSA [DM]: thionine	[Tran]: DPV in −0.4 to −0.1 V [IC]: (i) PSA conc. for 15 min, (ii) [DP] for 20 min [MC]: 3 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.1 pg/mL to 90 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 10 fg/mL [S]: 0.3635 µA/(pg/mL) [SL]: 3 weeks [CR]: 0.9831	[70]
[DP]: HRP-HRP-NP-hollow Au-NP-Thi@anti-AFP [Anal]: AFP [DM]: thionine	[Tran]: DPV in −0.4 to 0 V [IC]: (i) AFP conc for 16 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] for 30 min, RT [MC]: 4.2 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.025 to 5.0 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 8.3 pg/mL [S]: 7.649 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.9949	[40]
[DP]: anti-AFP, HRP/MSNs-Fe₃O₄ [Anal]: AFP [DM]: thionine	[Tran]: CV in −0.6 to 0.6 V (vs. SCE) at 100 mV/s in PBS (pH 7.4) [IC]: (i) AFP, (ii) [DP] for 1 h, sequentially [MC]: 5 mmol/L H₂O₂ in PBS	[L]: 0.01 to 25 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 4 pg/mL [SL]: 15 days	[64]
[DP]: GOx/anti-CEA/AgNPs [Anal]: CEA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: DPV in −0.2 to −0.8 V, [PA]: 50 mV, [PW]: 20 ms [IC]: (i) CEA conc 40 min, RT, (ii) [DP] 1 h, 4 °C [MC]: PBS + 1% glucose	[L]: 1 pg/mL to 50 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.27 pg/mL [S]: 8.281 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.9971	[56]
[DP]: HRP-Ag@BSA-anti-CEA [Anal]: CEA [DM]: tyramine	[Tran]: DPV in 0 to -600 mV vs. SCE [PA]: 50mV, [PW]: 50 ms in PBS [IC]: (i) CEA conc 40 min, RT, (ii) [DP] 40 min, RT, (iii) 2 mM H₂O₂ + HRP-tyramine conjugates 10 min at RT [MC]: 2.5 mM H₂O₂ in PBS	[L]: 0.005–80 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 5.0 pg/mL [S]: 1.617 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 28 days [CR]: 0.9867	[108]
[DP]: HRP/HRP-anti-CA 19-9/Au@SBA-15 [Anal]: CA 19-9 [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: chronoamperometry PBS pH 6 at −0.2 V [IC]: (i) CA 19-9 conc 1 h, 37 °C; (ii) [DP] 1 h, 37 °C [MC]: 3 mM H₂O₂ in PBS	[L]: 0.05 to 15.65 U/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.01 U/mL [S]: 20.51 g/L [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.992	[74]
[DP]: anti-CEA –Ag/Au–DN-graphene [Anal]: CEA [DM]: Ag	[Tran]: CV in −0.6 to1.0 V (vs. SCE) at 50 mV/s [IC]: (i) CEA conc 30 min, (ii) [DP]: 40 min [MC]: 0.1M PBS (pH7.0).	[L]: 10 to 1.2 × 105 pg/mL [LgS] [DL]: 8 pg/mL [S]: 0.494 µA/(ng/mL) [CR]: 0.9899	[34]
[DP]: PAMAM-Gr/anti-AFP-HRP [Anal]: AFP [DM]: hydroquinone	[Tran]: (i) amperometric at −0.2 V, (ii) CV −0.5 to +0.5 V, 50 mV/s [IC]: (i) AFP conc 40 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP]: 40 min, 37 °C [MC]: PBS containing 1 mM hydroquinone + 2 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 1.0–100 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 0.45 ng/mL	[50]
[DP]: Au@Pd-Gra/Thi-anti-CA 19-9/HRP [Anal]: CA19-9 [DM]: Thionine	[Tran]: DPV in −0.4–0 V, [PA]: 50 mV, [PW]: 50 ms, [PP]: 0.2 s [IC]: (i) CA 19-9 conc 40 min, 25 °C, (ii) [DP] [MC]: 1.5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.015 to 150 U/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.006 U/mL [S]: 9.8328 µA/(U/mL) [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.9982	[72]
[DP]: HRP, GOD, anti-AFP/SWCNHs [Anal]: AFP [DM]: 4-CN	[Tran]: Impedance [IC]: (i) AFP conc 40 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 40 min, 37 °C, (iii) 1.0 mM 4-CN and 10.0 mM glucose in 10mM PBS 15 min, RT [MC]: 0.01M PBS (pH 7.4) containing 5 mM FeCN₆^3−/4− and 0.1M KCl	[L]: 0.001 to 60 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.33 pg/mL [S]: 230.60 Ω/(ng/mL) [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.996	[73]
[DP]: anti-CEA/Au/MCF [Anal]: CEA [DM]: Ag	[Tran]: ASV in −0.08 to 0.2 V, 50 mV/s [IC]: (i) CEA conc 40 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 40 min, 37 °C, (iii) silver-deposition with enhancer solutions 4 min, 37 °C, [MC]: 1.0 M KCl	[L]: 0.05 pg/mL to 1 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.024 pg/mL [SL]: 15 days [CR]: 0.9997	[71]
[DP]: anti-AFP/CHIT–PB–AuNP; anti-CEA/CHIT–Fc–AuNPs, [Anal]: CEA, AFP [DM]: PB, Fc	[Tran]: DPV in −0.2 to 0.8 V [IC]: 45 min incubation for CEA, AFP concentration [MC]: PBS	[L]: 0.05–100 ng mL⁻¹ for AFP and CEA [LgS] [DL]: 0.03 ng mL⁻¹ and 0.02 ng mL⁻¹ for AFP and CEA [S]: 0.47067 µA/(ng/mL), 0.51106 µA/(ng/mL) for AFP and CEA [CR]: 0.99712 for AFP and 0.99806 for CEA	[52]
[DP]: anti-AFP-AuNPs-Thi@rGO and anti-CEA-AuNPs-PB@rGO [Anal]: CEA, AFP [DM]: PB, Thionine	[Tran]: DPV 600 to −600 mV; [PA] 50 mV. [IC]: (i) CEA/AFP conc 50 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 50 min, 37 °C [MC]: PBS pH 6.5	[L]: 0.6–80 ng/mL for both [LS] [DL]: 0.12 ng/mL and 0.08 ng/mL for CEA and AFP [S]: 0.0188 µA/(ng/mL), 0.0273 µA/(ng/mL) for CEA and AFP [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.9908, 0.9936 for CEA and AFP	[36]
[DP]: Anti-CEA/PB–CS-Au and anti APF/Cd–CS-Au [Anal]: CEA, AFP [DM]: PB, Cd	[Tran]: DPV in −0.1V to 0.9V (vs. Ag/AgCl), [PA]: 50 mV, [PW]: 50 ms [IC]: (i) CEA/AFP conc 40 min, (ii) [DP] mixture 1:1 [MC]: 0.1 M pH 6.5 phosphate buffered solution (PBS)	[L]: 0.01 to 100 ng/mL range for both [LgS] [DL]: 0.006 ng/mL for AFP and 0.01 ng/mL for CEA [S]: 1.771 µA/(ng/mL), 1.751 µA/(ng/mL) for CEA and AFP [CR]: 0.996 and 0.995 for CEA and AFP	[44]
[DP]: PLL-Au-Cd-Apo-anti-AFP and PLL-Au-Pb-Apo-anti-CEA [Anal]: AFP and CEA [DM]: Cd, PB	[Tran]: SWV scan from −1.0 to −0.3 V with frequency of 15 Hz, [PA]: 25 mV, potential step 4 mV, quiet time 2 s to measure AFP and CEA at −0.78 V and −0.53 V [IC]: (i) CEA/AFP conc 20 min, RT, (ii) [DP] 20 min, RT [MC]: (i) immuno-complex in acetate buffer containing 400 µg/L bismuth, (ii) deposition of bismuth film and metal ions in situ at −1.2 V for 120 s	[L]: 0.01–50 ng/mL for both [LgS] [DL]: 4 pg/mL for both [S]: 6.65 µA/(ng/mL), 6.62 µA/(ng/mL), for AFP and CEA [SL]: 25 days [CR]:0.992, 0.994 for AFP and CEA	[59]
[DP]: anti-CEA-PtPNP-Cd²⁺ and anti-AFP-PtPNPs-Cu²⁺ [Anal]: CEA and AFP [DM]:Cd²⁺, Cu²⁺	[Tran]: DPV in 0.2 to −0.9 V with [PA]: 50 mV, [PW]: 50 ms and quiet time of 2 s were recorded for CEA and AFP at −0.736 V and 0.004 V respectively [IC]: (i) CEA/AFP conc 1 h, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 1 h, 37 °C [MC]: acetate buffer solution (0.2 M, pH 4.5).	[L]: 0.05 ng/mL to 200 ng/mL range for both CEA and AFP [LgS] [DL]: 0.002 ng/mL and 0.05 ng/mL for CEA and AFP [S]: 2.26 µA/(ng/mL), 1.06 µA/(ng/mL), for CEA and AFP [CR]: 0.997, 0.998 for CEA and AFP	[29]
[DP]: CdNCs–Au–anti-CEA and CuNCs–Au– anti-AFP [Anal]: CEA and AFP [DM]: CdNCs and CuNCs	[Tran]: SWV in 0.1 to −0.9 V with [PA]: 25 mV, pulse frequency 15 Hz, were recorded for CEA and AFP at −0.7 V and −0.1 V (vs. Ag/AgCl), [IC]: (i) CEA/AFP conc 50 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 50 min, 37 °C [MC]: acetate buffer solution (0.2 M, pH 6).	[L]: 0.025 to 250 ng/mL range for both [LgS] [DL]: 0.0175 ng/mL and 0.0109 ng/mL for CEA and AFP [S]: 4.31 µA/(ng/mL), 3.858 µA/(ng/mL), for CEA and AFP [CR]: 0.998 for CEA and AFP	[53]
[DP]: TB/Au@KIT-6/CMC/ILs-anti-CEA [Anal]: CEA [DM]: TB	[Tran]: DPV in −0.6 V to 0 V [IC]: (i) CEA conc 1 h, RT, (ii) [DP] 1 h [MC]: PBS pH 6.8	[L]: 10−5 ng/mL to 102 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 3.3 fg/mL [S]: 3.32 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 2 weeks [CR]: 0.99	[45]
[DP]: Cd-Alg-anti-AFP, Pb-Alg-anti-CEA and Cu-Alg-anti-PSA [Anal]: AFP, CEA and PSA [DM]: Cd, Pb, Cu	[Tran]: DPV in −0.9 to 0.2 V to measure AFP, CEA and PSA at −0.76 V, −0.5 V and 0.12 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) [IC]: (i) CEA/AFP/PSA conc 50 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 50 min, 37 °C [MC]: acetate buffer solution (0.2 M, pH 5).	[L]: 0.01 to 100 ng mL⁻¹ for all [DL]: 0.01, 0.0086 and 0.0075 ng/mL for AFP, CEA and PSA [S]: 5.548 µA/(ng/mL), 3.737 µA/(ng/mL), 4.586 µA/(ng/mL), for AFP, CEA and PSA [SL]: 15 days [CR]: 0.993, 0.994, 0.996 for AFP, CEA and PSA	[43]
[DP]: anti-CA19-92/Envision/Au, anti-AFP2/Envision/CdS and anti-CEA2/Envision/PbS [Anal]: CA19-9, CEA and AFP [DM]: Au (via CSV), CdS, PbS (via ASV)	[Tran]: ASV with accumulation at −1.2 V for 120 s, and scanning from −1.0 to −0.3 V, with [PS]: 4 mV, frequency 15 Hz, and [PA]: 25 mV. CSV +1.3 V for 30 s, immediately followed by DPV detection from +0.6 V to 0 V, with [PS]: 4 mV, [PA]: 50 mV, and pulse period of 0.2 s. [IC]: (i) Ca 19-9/CEA/AFP conc 30 min, RT, (ii) [DP] 30 min, RT [MC]: (i) GCE was incubated in pH 2.0 bismuth nitrate solution in acetate and treated at −1.2 V for 120 s, (ii) immune-complex in 0.1 M HCl	[L]: 5 pg/mL–100 ng/mL, 1 pg/mL–50 ng/mL, and 1 pg/mL–50 ng/mL for CA19-9, CEA and AFP [LgS] [DL]: 0.3, 0.05, 0.02 pg/mL for CA19-9, CEA and AFP [S]: 6.65, 7.32, 0.60 µA/(ng/mL) for AFP , CEA and CA19-9 [SL]: 60 days [CR]:0.99, 0.997, 0.993 for AFP , CEA and CA19-9	[107]
[DP]: Au@MCM-41/TB/anti-AFP [Anal]: AFP [DM]: TB	[Tran]: DPV in −0.6 V to 0.2 V. [IC]: (i) AFP conc 1 h, RT, (ii) [DP] 1 h, RT [MC]: PBS pH 6.8	[L]: 10−4 ng/mL to 103 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.05 pg/mL [S]: 1.43 µA/(ng/mL), [SL]: 2 weeks [CR]: 0.99	[57]
[DP]: Au@CMK-3-anti-CEA-neutral red and Au@CMK-3-anti-SCCA-thionine [Anal]: CEA and SCCA [DM]: neutral red, thionine	[Tran]: DPV in −0.7 to 1 V for recording −0.62 V (neutral red), and −0.17V (thionine) [IC]: (i) CEA/SCCA conc 1 h, RT, (ii) [DP] 1 h [MC]: PBS pH 7.4	[L]: 0.05 to 20 ng/mL and 0.03 to 20 ng/mL range for CEA and SCCA [LS] [DL]: 0.013 ng/mL and 0.010 ng/mL for CEA and SCCA [SL]: 10 days	[66]
[DP]: AuNPs–anti-CEA–Cu²⁺ and AuNPs–anti-AFP–Pb²⁺ [Anal]: CEA and AFP [DM]: Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺	[Tran]: DPV in −0.7 V to 0.3 V (vs. SCE), [PA] 50 mV, [PW] 50 ms [IC]: (i) CEA/AFP conc 35 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 45 min, 37 °C [MC]: HAc/NaAc (0.2 M, pH 3.5)	[L]: 0.01–50 ng/mL for both [LgS] [DL]: 4.6 pg/mL and 3.1 pg/mL for CEA and AFP [S]: 3.3 µA/(ng/mL), 4.86 µA/(ng/mL), for CEA and AFP [CR]:0.9967, 0.9991 for CEA and AFP	[54]
[DP]: Aq-SA/bio-dsDNA/SA/bio-anti-AFP/Au/SiO₂–Fe₃O₄, Thi-SA/bio-dsDNA/SA/bio-anti-CEA/Au/SiO₂–Fe3O₄, Co-SA/bio-dsDNA/SA/bio-anti-CA125/Au/SiO₂–Fe₃O₄, Fc-SA/bio-dsDNA/SA/bio-anti-PSA/Au/SiO₂–Fe₃O₄ [Anal]: AFP, CEA, CA125 and PSA [DM]: Aq, Thi, Co, Fc	[Tran]: DPV in −0.7 to 0.7 V incre: 0.004 V, [PA]: 0.05 V, [PW]: 0.05 s, sampling width: 0.0167 s, pulse period: 0.2 s to record AFP at −0.52 V, CEA at −0.21V, CA125 at 0.0V, PSA at 0.26V [IC]: (i) AFP/CEA/CA125/PSA conc 40 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP]: 40 min, 37 °C [MC]: PBS 0.1 M, pH: 7.4	[L]: 0.2 to 800 pg/mL, 0.2 to 600 pg/mL, 0.2 to 1000 pg/mL, and 0.2 to 800 pg/mL for AFP, CEA, CA125 and PSA [LgS] [DL]: 62, 48, 77 and 60 fg/mL for AFP, CEA, CA125 and PSA [S]: 22.71 µA/(pg/mL), 21.91 µA/(pg/mL), 33.69 µA/(pg/mL),21.30 µA/(pg/mL), for for AFP, CEA, CA125 and PSA [SL]: 14 days [CR]: 0.9797, 0.9696, 0.9791, 0.9786 for AFP, CEA, CA125 and PSA	[46]
[DP]: anti-CEA-AuNP-So [Anal]: CEA [DM]: MB	[Tran]: DPV 0 to −500 mV vs SCE [IC]: (i) CEA conc + [DP] 40 min, RT, (ii) hybridization mix 80 min, RT, (iii) hemin incubation 50 min RT, (iv) methylene blue incubation 30 min at RT [MC]: PBS (pH 7.0) containing 3.0 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 1.0 fg/mL to 20 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.5 fg/mL [S]: 1.9636 µA/(ng/mL), [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.9973	[60]
[DP]: anti-CA15-3–f-TiO₂–Cd²⁺ [Anal]: CA15-3 [DM]: Cd²⁺	[Tran]: SWV in −1 to −0.45 V [IC]: (i) CA15-3 conc 1 h, 4 °C, (ii) [DP] 1 h, 4 °C [MC]: PBS (pH 5.4)	[L]: 0.02–60 U/mL [LS] [DL]: 0.008 U/mL [S]: 1.806 µA/(U/mL), [SL]: 4 weeks [CR]: 0.998	[32]
[DP]: PtNP@ICP-anti-PSA [Anal]: PSA [DM]: FcDA	[Tran]: DPV at 0.31 V vs. SCE [IC]: (i) PSA conc 30 min, RT, (ii) [DP] 30 min, RT, [MC]: 5.0 mM H₂O₂ in the PBS pH 7.0	[L]: 0.001 to 60 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.3 pg/mL [S]: 1.85129 µA/(ng/mL), [SL]: 1 week [CR]: 0.988	[61]
[DP]: anti-PSA-Fc-AuNP [Anal]: PSA [DM]: Fc	[Tran]: DPV in 0 to 0.6 V [IC]: (i) PSA conc 75 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 90 min, 37 °C, [MC]: PBS	[L]: 10 pg/mL to 100 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 5.4 pg/mL [S]: 0.137 µA/(ng/mL), [CR]: 0.9907	[68]
[DP]: Aptamer/Thi-AuNPs/SiO₂@MWCNTs [Anal]: MUC 1 [DM]: Thionine	[Tran]: DPV in −0.33 to −0.1 V [IC]: (i) MUC1 conc 40 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 40 min, 37 °C, [MC]: PBS pH 7.4	[L]: 10⁻³ to 1 nM, 1–100 nM [LS] [DL]: 1 pM [S]: 1.647 nA/nM [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.98	[58]
[DP]: HRP-GOD/Fc-anti-AFP/PGN, HRP-GOD/Thi-anti-CEA/PGN [Anal]: CEA and AFP [DM]: Fc, Thi	[Tran]: SWV in −0.6 V to 0.6 V with a frequency of 15 Hz and a [PA]: of 25 mV (vs. SCE) to record Thi (at −0.15 V) and Fc (at 0.35 V) [IC]: (i) CEA/AFP conc 45 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 45 min, 37 °C, [MC]: PBS (0.1 M pH 6.5) with 4 mM glucose	[L]: 0.01–100 ng/mL for both [LgS] [DL]: 1.64 pg/mL and 1.33 pg/mL for CEA and AFP [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.998, 0.994 for CEA and AFP	[48]
[DP]: 3DGS@MB-anti-CEA and 3DGS@Fc-anti-AFP [Anal]: CEA and AFP [DM]: MB, Fc	[Tran]: DPV in −0.4 to 0.4 V with [PA]: 50 mV and [PW] 50 ms [IC]: (i) CEA/AFP conc 40 min, RT, (ii) [DP], [MC]: PBS (pH 7.0, containing 0.1 M KCl)	[L]: 0.001 to 100 ng/mL for both [LgS] [DL]: 0.5 and 0.8 pg/mL for CEA and AFP [S]: 11.19, 27.866 µA/(ng/mL), for CEA and AFP [SL]: 10 days [CR]: 0.9985, 0.9957 for CEA and AFP	[76]
[DP]: CGN-Thi-anti-CEA, CGN-DAP-anti-PSA and CGN-Cd²⁺-anti-AFP [Anal]: PSA, CEA, AFP [DM]: DAP, Thi, Cd²⁺	[Tran]: SWV −1.2 V to 0.2 V (vs. SCE) [PA] 50 mV [PW] 50 ms to record Thi, DAP and Cd²⁺ at −0.05 V, −0.35 V and −0.65 V [IC]: (i) PSA/CEA/AFP conc 35 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 45 min, 37 °C, [MC]: PBS (pH 6.5, 0.1 M)	[L]: 0.01–100 ng/mL for all three [LgS] [DL]: 4.8, 2.7 and 3.1 pg/mL for PSA, CEA and AFP [S]: 4.12, 5.84, 5.48 µA/(ng/mL), for PSA, CEA and AFP [SL]: 2 weeks [CR]: 0.997, 0.995, 0.997 for PSA, CEA and AFP	[75]
[DP]: M-Pt-anti-CA125, M-Pt-anti-CA153, M-Pt-anti-CEA [Anal]: CEA, CA153, CA125	[Tran]: DPV in −0.65 to 0.4 V [IC]: (i) CEA, CA153, CA125 conc 1 h, RT, (ii) [DP] 1 h, RT [MC]: PBS (pH 7.4) containing 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.02–20 ng/mL, 0.008–24 U/mL, 0.05–20 U/mL for CEA, CA153 and CA125, [LgS] [DL]: 7.0 pg/mL, 0.001 U/mL and 0.002 U/mL, for CEA, CA153 and CA125 [SL]: one month [CR]: 0.9927, 0.9962, 0.9988 for CEA, CA153 and CA125	[30]
[DP]: anti-CA72-4/PANi–Au AMNPs [Anal]: CA72-4 [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.4 V [IC]: (i) CA72-4 conc 1 h, RT, (ii) [DP] 1 h, RT [MC]: PBS pH 7.4 with 5.0 mmol/L H₂O₂	[L]: 2 to 200 U/mL [LS] [DL]: 0.10 U/mL [S]: 0.814 µA/(U/ml) [SL]: 20 days [CR]: 0.9945	[55]
[DP]: Fe₃O₄@SiO₂–Fc–anti-CEA/HRP [Anal]: CEA [DM]: Fc	[Tran]: DPV in −0.1 to 0.8 V [IC]: (i) CEA conc 40 min, RT, (ii) [DP] [MC]: PBS (pH 7.4) with 4 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.001 to 80 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 0.0002 ng/mL [S]: 0.3867 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 3 weeks [CR]: 0.99	[35]
[DP]: anti-SCCA/Pd–Au/C [Anal]: SCCA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.2 V [IC]: (i) SCCA conc, (ii) [DP] 1 h [MC]: PBS pH 6.8 with H₂O₂	[L]: 0.005 to 2 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 1.7 pg/mL [S]: 4.351 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 7 days [CR]: 0.9995	[28]
[DP]: Cu@Ag-CD-ADA-anti-CEA [Anal]: CEA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.4 V [IC]: (i) CEA conc, 60 min, RT, (ii) [DP] 60 min, RT [MC]: PBS pH 7.0 with 5mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.0001–20 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 20 fg/mL [S]: (i) 212.46 µA/(ng/mL) below 0.5 ng/mL, (ii) 5.82 µA/(ng/mL) above 0.5 ng/mL [SL]: 1 week [CR]: (i) 0.9955, (ii) 0.9982	[37]
[DP]: anti-AFP/Fe₃O₄@C@Pd [Anal]: AFP [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.4 V [IC]: (i) AFP conc, 1 h, (ii) [DP] [MC]: PBS pH 6.5 with 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.5 pg/mL to 10 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.16 pg/mL [S]: 45.195 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.981	[33]
[DP]: anti-CEA/NP-PtFe [Anal]: CA15-3 [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: chronoamperometry at −0.4V [IC]: (i) CA15-3 conc, 1 h, RT, (ii) [DP] 1 h, RT [MC]: PBS pH 7.4 with 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.002 to 40 U/mL [LS] [DL]: 3 × 10⁻⁴ U/mL [S]: 1.879 µA/(U/mL) [SL]: 10 days [CR]: 0.9988	[31]
[DP]: anti-AFP/PdNi/N-GNRs [Anal]: AFP [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: DPV [IC]: (i) AFP conc, 1 h, RT, (ii) [DP] 1 h, RT [MC]: PBS pH 7.0 with 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.0001–16 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 0.03 pg/mL [S]: (i) 161.86 µA/(ng/mL) below 0.2 ng/mL, (ii) 9.09 µA/(ng/mL) above 0.2 ng/mL [SL]: 20 days [CR]: (i) 0.9946, (ii) 0.9969	[39]
[DP]: Pb²⁺@Au@MWCNT-Fe₃O₄/anti-AFP [Anal]: AFP [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.4 V [IC]: (i) AFP conc, 1 h; RT (ii) [DP] [MC]: PBS pH 7.4 with 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 10 fg/mL to 100 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 3.33 fg/mL [S]: 11.19 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 4 weeks [CR]: 0.9984	[49]
[DP]: anti-SCCA/Au/Ag/Au NPs [Anal]: SCCA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.4 V [IC]: (i) SCCA conc, 1 h, RT, (ii) [DP] 1 h, RT [MC]: PBS pH 7.17 with 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.5 pg/mL to 40 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.18 pg/mL [S]: 25.33 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 2 weeks [CR]: 0.9880	[41]
[DP]: anti-AFP/Pd/APTES-M-CeO₂-GS [Anal]: AFP [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.4 V [IC]: (i) AFP conc, 1 h, 4°C, (ii) [DP] 1 h, [MC]: PBS pH 7.4 with 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.1 pg/mL to 50 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.033 pg/mL [S]: 10.1 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 4 weeks [CR]: 0.99	[51]
[DP]: anti-SCC/Pt–Fe₃O₄ NPs [Anal]: SCC [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.4 V [IC]: (i) SCC conc, 1 h, (ii) [DP] 1 h, [MC]: PBS pH 7.4 with 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.05 to 18 ng/mL [DL]: 15.3 pg/mL [SL]: 20 days	[65]
[DP]: anti-CA72-4/PtPd-Fe₃O₄ NPs [Anal]: CA72-4 [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.4 V [IC]: (i) SCC conc, 1 h, 4 °C, (ii) [DP] 1 h, [MC]: PBS pH 7.0 with 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.001–10 U/mL [DL]: 0.0003 U/mL [SL]: 10 days	[67]
[DP]: CNTs/PDDA/HRP/ConA/HRP-anti-CEA [Anal]: CEA [DM]: hydroquinone	[Tran]: DPV in −0.4 to 0.2 V (vs. SCE) at a scan rate of 50 mV/s [IC]: (i) CEA conc, 40 min, RT, (ii) [DP] 60 min, RT [MC]: PBS (0.02 M, pH 7.5) with 2 mM H₂O₂ and 3 mM HQ	[L]: (i) 0.05–5 ng/mL and (ii) 5–200 ng/mL, [LS] [DL]: 0.018 ng/mL [S]: (i) 1.29 µA/(ng/mL), (ii) 0.0315 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 15 days [CR]: (i) 0.998, (ii) 0.998	[62]
[DP]: M-Pd@Pt/NH₂-GS/anti-PSA [Anal]: PSA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.4 V [IC]: (i) PSA conc, 1 h, 4 °C, (ii) [DP] 40 min, RT, [MC]: PBS pH 7.38 with 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 10 fg/mL–50 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 3.3 fg/mL [S]: 11.96 µA/(ng/mL), [SL]: 4 weeks [CR]: 0.9988	[78]
[DP]: Ir NPs-anti-CEA [Anal]: CEA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.6 V [IC]: (i) CEA conc, (ii) [DP] 1 h, 37 °C, [MC]: PBS pH 7.4 with 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.5 pg/mL–5 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.23 pg/mL [S]: 0.435 µA/(ng/mL), [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.99	[79]
[DP]: PBG-Au-anti-CEA; PPP-Au-anti-NSE; PTBO-Au anti-CA125; PMCP-Au-anti-Cyfra21–1; Cd NCs-Au anti-SCCA [Anal]: CEA, NSE, CA125, Cyfra21–1, SCCA [DM]: PBG-Au, PPP-Au, PTBO-Au, PMCP-Au and Cd NCs at 0.4 V, 0.15 V, −0.14 V, −0.5 V, −0.75 V	[Tran]: SWV in −1.0 V to 0.8 V to record peaks at 0.4 V, 0.15 V, −0.14 V, −0.5 Vand −0.75 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) for simultaneously detection of CEA, NSE, CA125, Cyfra21–1 and SCCA [IC]: (i) CEA, SCCA, CA125, Cyfra21–1 and NSE mix, (ii) PBG-Au-anti-CEA, PPP-Au-anti-NSE, PTBO-Au-anti-CA125, PMCP-Au-anti-Cyfra21–1, Cd NCs-Au-anti-SCCA probes mixture 45 min, 37 °C. [MC]: PB (0.1 M, pH 6.0).	[L]: 0.1 to 100 ng/mL for SCCA, 1 to 150 ng/mL for CEA, NSE and Cyfra21–1, and 1 to 150 U/mL for CA125 [LgS] [DL]: 0.2 ng/mL for CEA, 0.9 ng/mL for NSE, 0.9 U/mL for CA125, 0.4 ng/mL for Cyfra21–1 and 0.03 ng/mL for SCCA [S]: 3.06 µA/(ng/mL), 4.9 µA/(ng/mL), 3.7 µA/(U/mL), 2.3 µA/(ng/mL), 2.57 µA/(ng/mL), for CEA, NSE, CA125, Cyfra21–1, SCCA [SL]: 4 weeks [CR]: 0.984, 0.983, 0.997, 0.995 and 0.971 for CEA, NSE, CA125, Cyfra21–1, SCCA	[80]
[DP]: HRP-MNP-anti-PSA, HRP-MNP-anti-PSMA, HRP-MNP-anti-IL-6, HRP-MNP-anti-PF-4 [Anal]: PSA, PSMA, IL-6, PF-4 [DM]: HQ	[Tran]: DPV from 0.0 V to −0.4 V vs. Ag/AgCl at 4 mV step, 25 mV amplitude, and 0.5 s pulse and 15 Hz [IC]: (i) [Anal]: mix with [DP], (ii) incubation with sensor [MC]: PBS with 1 mM HQ and 100 µM H₂O₂	[L]: 2 pg/mL to 200 ng/mL for PSA, 0.05 pg/mL to 5 ng/mL for IL-6, 0.1 pg/mL to 10 pg/mL for PF-4, and 0.15 pg/mL to 15 ng/mL for PSMA [LgS] [S]: 0.84 ± 0.06 nA/(pg/mL), for PSA, 0.90 ± 0.09 nA/(pg/mL), for IL-6, 0.98 ± 0.07 nA/(pg/mL), for PF-4, and 1.1 ± 0.1 nA/(pg/mL), for PSMA [SL]: 7 days	[81]
[DP]: AuNP-HRP, anti-PSA [Anal]: PSA [DM]: TMB	[Tran]: amperometric at −0.1 V [IC]: (i) PSA conc 250 µL at 30 µL/min flow, (ii) [DP] [MC]: PBS pH 7.4 with TMB-H₂O₂	[L]: 0.2–12.5 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 0.2 ng/mL [S]: 2.24 nA/(ng/mL) [CR]: 0.94	[82]
[DP]: Primer-AuNP-PSA aptamer [Anal]: PSA [DM]: CuNPs	[Tran]: DPSV in −0.2 to 0.6 V with 4 mV step, amplitude 0.05 V, [PW]: 0.05 s, pulse period 0.5 s, deposition potential −0.5 V, deposition time 300 s [IC]: (i) PSA conc, 1 h, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 1 h, 37 °C, (iii) RCA reaction, (iv) CuNP formation, 30 min, RT [MC]: Cu²⁺ in 0.5 M HNO₃	[L]: 0.05–500 fg/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.02 fg/mL [S]: 3.48 µA/(fg/mL) [CR]: 0.995	[83]
[DP]: anti-CYFRA-1-HRP/AuNPs/Thi/MWCNT-NH₂ [Anal]: CYFRA-1 [DM]: Thi	[Tran]: DPV in −0.4 to 0 V [IC]: (i) CYFRA-1 conc for 1 h, 35 °C (ii) [DP] for 1 h, 35 °C [MC]: 2 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.1–150 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 43 pg/mL [S]: 0.446 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 15 days [CR]: 0.9937	[84]
[DP]: anti-AFP-Co₃O₄@MnO₂-Thi [Anal]: AFP [DM]: Thi	[Tran]: DPV in −0.6 to 0.6 V [IC]: (i) AFP conc, (ii) [DP] [MC]: dried 10 µL unbound [DP] on AgNP/SPEC using 50 µL PBS	[L]: 0.001–100 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.33 pg/mL [S]: 5.24 µA/(ng/mL) [CR]: 0.9977	[85]
[DP]: antiHER2/Hyd@AuNP-APTMS-Fe₃O₄ [Anal]: HER2 [DM]: AgNPs	[Tran]: DPV in 0 to 0.6 V [IC]: (i) HER2 conc for 30 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] 30 min, 37 °C, 0.01 M AgNO₃, 25 min [MC]: 0.01 M AgNO₃, 25 min	[L]: 5 × 10⁻⁴ to 50.0 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 2.0 × 10−5 ng/mL [S]: 1.9194 µA/(ng/mL) [CR]: 0.9906	[86]
[DP]: anti-CEA-AuNP-Fc [Anal]: CEA [DM]: Fc	[Tran]: SWV in 0 to 0.6 V [IC]: (i) CEA conc for 45 min, (ii) [DP] for 45 min [MC]: 0.1 M PBS (pH~7.0)	[L]: 0.5 to 10 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 0.2 ng/mL [S]: 0.4494 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 3 weeks [CR]: 0.9968	[87]
[DP]: anti-PSA-HRP [Anal]: PSA [DM]: MB	[Tran]: SWV in −0.4 to 0.15 V [IC]: (i) PSA conc for 25 min, (ii) [DP] for 30 min, [MC]: 1 mM MB + 2.5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 1–18 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 1 pg/mL [S]: 3.234 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 3 weeks [CR]: 0.996	[88]
[DP]: HRP-anti-CEA-AuNP-TiO₂-GR [Anal]: CEA [DM]: HQ	[Tran]: DPV in 0.55 to −0.3 V [IC]: (i) CEA conc for 30 min, (ii) [DP] for 1 h, 35 °C [MC]: 2 mM H₂O₂ + 2.5 mM HQ	[L]: 0.005–200 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 3.33 pg/mL [S]: 11.98 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 15 days [CR]: 0.994	[89]
[DP]: PtCu@rGO/g-C₃N₄/anti-PSA [Anal]: PSA [DM]: Thi	[Tran]: amperometric −0.4 V [IC]: (i) PSA conc for 30 min, (ii) [DP] for 50 min, RT [MC]: 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 50 fg/mL to 40 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 16.6 fg/mL [S]: 15.97 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 4 weeks [CR]: 0.9913	[90]
[DP]: M-Pd@Pt/NH₂-GS/anti-PSA [Anal]: PSA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric −0.4 V [IC]: (i) PSA conc for 1 h, 4°C, (ii) [DP] for 40 min, RT [MC]: 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 10 fg/mL to 50 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 3.3 fg/mL [S]: 11.96 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 4 weeks [CR]: 0.9988	[78]
[DP]: anti-AFP-Pt NPs/Co₃O₄/graphene [Anal]: AFP [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric −0.4 V [IC]: (i) AFP conc for 1 h, 4 °C, (ii) [DP] for 1 h, 4 °C [MC]: 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.1 pg m/L to 60 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.029 pg/mL [S]: 9.71 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 28 days [CR]: 0.996	[91]
[DP]: GS-Fe₃O₄/Au@Ag/Ni²⁺-anti-CEA [Anal]: CEA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric −0.4 V [IC]: (i) CEA conc for 1 h, RT, (ii) [DP] for 1 h, RT [MC]: 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.1 pg/mL to 100 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.0697 pg/mL [S]: 6.62 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 2 weeks [CR]: 0.998	[92]
[DP]: HRP-anti-CEA [Anal]: CEA [DM]: Thi	[Tran]: DPV in −0.4 to 0.1V [IC]: (i) CEA conc + [DP] for 30 min, RT [MC]: 0.5 mM Thi + 5 mM H₂O₂in PBS	[L]: 0.02 to 12 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 0.01 ng/mL [SL]: 4 weeks [CR]: 0.998	[94]
[DP]: PdCu-anti-CEA [Anal]: CEA [DM]: polyaniline	[Tran]: DPV in −0.2 to 0.6 V [IC]: (i) CEA conc for 1 h, (ii) [DP] RT [MC]: aniline polymerization by CV in −1 to 1 V, 200 s, 100 mV/s	[L]: 0.1 pg/mL to 10.0 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.08 pg/mL [S]: 2.49 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 5 weeks [CR]: 0.99	[95]
[DP]: anti-AFP-GNPs-HRP [Anal]: AFP [DM]: HQ	[Tran]: amperometric −0.2 V [IC]: (i) AFP conc + [DP] for 20 min, RT [MC]: 2mM HQ + 2 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 20 to 100 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 0.64 ng/mL [S]: 0.3869 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 15 days [CR]: 0.9940	[96]
[DP]: streptavidin-HRP [Anal]: HER2 [DM]: TMB	[Tran]: CV in −0.2 to 0.8 V, 50 mV/s [IC]: (i) HER2 conc for 2 h, RT and dried, (ii) [DP] for 2 h, RT and dried, (iii) streptavidin-HRP 30 min, RT, (iv) TMB-H₂O₂ 20 min	[L]: 5 to 20 ng/mL and 20 to 200 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 4 ng/mL and 5 ng/mL [S]: 0.087 µA/(ng/mL) and 0.28 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 7 days	[109]
[DP]: anti-AFP/HRP-Au@ZnO [Anal]: AFP [DM]: TMB	[Tran]: DPV in −0.1 to 0.6 V [IC]: (i) AFP conc for 40 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] [MC]: 0.1 mM TMB + 0.2 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.02 pg/mL to 10ng/mL and 10 to 100 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.01 pg/mL [S]: 1.48 µA/(10⁻¹⁰ g/mL) and 6.15 µA/(10⁻¹⁰ g/mL) [SL]: 1 week [CR]: 0.9956 and 0.9917	[97]
[DP]: anti-PSA/AuNPs [Anal]: PSA [DM]: Ag (I) ions	[Tran]: Linear sweep anodic striping in −0.2 to 0.5 V, 50 mV/s [IC]: (i) PSA conc for 30 min, RT, (ii) [DP] for 40 min, RT, (iii) 1st Au enhancement, (iv) spiky gold enhancement, (v) silver enhancement [MC]: 1 M KCl	[L]: 1.95 to 125 pg/mL and 0.125 to 10 ng/mL [LS] [DL]: 1.2 pg/mL [S]: 17.51 µA/(ng/mL) and 3.5 µA/(ng/mL) [CR]: 0.99 and 0.9896	[98]
[DP]: Co₃O₄@CeO₂-Au@Pt-anti-SCCA [Anal]: SCCA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric −0.4 V [IC]: (i) SCCA conc for 1 h, (ii) [DP] for 1 h [MC]: 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 100 fg/mL to 80 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 33 fg/mL [S]: 4.43 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 4 weeks [CR]: 0.998	[99]
[DP]: Au@Ag/PDA-PR-MCS [Anal]: AFP [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric −0.4 V [IC]: (i) AFP conc for 30 min, (ii) [DP] for 1 h [MC]: 5 mM H₂O₂, 30 min	[L]: 20fg/mL to 100 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 6.7 fg/mL [S]: 16.07 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 1 month [CR]: 0.9987	[100]
[DP]: MSN-MB/PDA-anti-PSA [Anal]: PSA [DM]: MB	[Tran]: SWV −0.7 to 0.3 V [IC]: (i) PSA conc for 50 min, 37 °C, (ii) [DP] for 1 h, 37 °C [MC]: 0.1 M HCl, 40 °C, 15 min	[L]: 10 fg/mL to 100 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 1.25 fg/mL [S]: 18.84 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 30 days [CR]: 0.992	[101]
[DP]: AuPd NCNs-anti-CA 15-3 [Anal]: CA 15-3 [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric 0.2 V [IC]: (i) CA 15-3 conc. drop and dried 4 °C, (ii) [DP] incubation [MC]: 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.001 pg/mL to 100 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.35 fg/mL [S]: 14.29 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 7 days [CR]: 0.9954	[102]
[DP]: Au@Pt DNa/NG/Cu²⁺-anti-CEA [Anal]: CEA [DM]: H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric −0.4 V [IC]: (i) CEA conc, (ii) [DP] for 40 min [MC]: 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.5 pg/mL to 50 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.167 pg/mL [S]: 17.9 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 3 weeks [CR]: 0.9964	[103]
[DP]: Au@Ag-Cu₂O/anti-PSA [Anal]: PSA [DM]: 5 mM H₂O₂	[Tran]: amperometric −0.4 V [IC]: (i) PSA conc for 1 h, 4 °C, (ii) [DP] [MC]: 5 mM H₂O₂	[L]: 0.01 pg/mL to 100 ng/mL [LgS] [DL]: 0.003 pg/mL [S]: 4.98 µA/(ng/mL) [SL]: 16 days [CR]: 0.9998	[104]

Notes: [Ab2]: detection antibody; [Anal]: analyte; [CR]: correlation coefficient; [DL]: detection limit; [DM]: detection molecule; [DP]: detection probe; [IC]: incubation conditions; [L]: linearity; [LgS]: log scale; [LS]: linear scale; [MC]: measurement conditions; [PA]: pulse amplitude; [PP]: pulse period; [PW]: pulse width; [S]: sensitivity; [SL]: shelf life; [Tran]: transducer. 4-CN: 4-chloro-1-naphthol; Aq: anthraquinone 2-carboxylic acid; ASV: anodic stripping voltammetry; ASV: square wave anodic stripping voltammetric measurements; Au AMNPs: Au asymmetric multicomponent nanoparticles; CA 19-9: carbohydrate antigen 19-9; CA15-3: carbohydrate antigen 15-3; CA72-4: carbohydrate antigen 72-4; Cd NCs-Au: Cd nanocubes-gold; CGN: nanocomposite of carbon and gold; Co: Tris(2,2′-bipyridine-4,4′-di-carboxylicacid)cobalt(III)(Co(bpy)33þ, expressed as; CSV: cathodic stripping voltammetry; DPSV: differential pulse stripping voltammetry; Fc: ferrocenecarboxylic acid; MCF: mesoporous carbon form; MCM-41: multifunctional mesoporous silica; M-Pd@Pt: mesoporous core-shell Pd@Pt; M-Pt NPs: mesoporous platinum nanoparticles; MSNs: mesoporous silica nanoparticles; MUC 1: Mucin 1; N-GNRs: N-doped graphene nanoribbons; NP-PtFe: nanoporous PtFe; PB: prussian blue; PBG-Au: poly (brilliant green)-gold; PGN: PtNPs modified graphene nanocomposite; PMCP-Au: poly (m-cresol purple)-gold; PPP-Au: poly (N-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine)-gold; PTBO-Au: poly (toluidine blue o)-gold; SWCNHs: single-walled carbon nanohorns; TB: toluidine blue.