. 2018 May 3;126(5):057003. doi: 10.1289/EHP2080

Table 3.

Changes in connectivity, residential density, and land-use mix as predictors of any walking for transport (vs. none, logistic regression models) and minutes of walking for transport (linear regression models).

Outcome and exposure	Random effects models^a			$Random effects models + walking preference$ ^b			Fixed effects models^c
Outcome and exposure	Participants (Observations)	OR or beta^d (95% CI)	p-Value	Participants (Observations)	OR or beta^d (95% CI)	p-Value	Participants (Observations)	OR or beta^d (95% CI)	p-Value
Any walking (logistic model)
Connectivity	9,747 (23,646)	1.49 (1.42, 1.56)	$< 0.001$	8,547 (20,899)	1.40 (1.33, 1.47)	$< 0.001$	2,789 (9,107)	1.19 (1.07, 1.32)	0.002
Residential density	9,747 (23,646)	1.20 (1.16, 1.25)	$< 0.001$	8,547 (20,899)	1.23 (1.20, 1.27)	$< 0.001$	2,789 (9,107)	1.10 (1.05, 1.15)	0.003
Land use mix	9,747 (23,646)	1.39 (1.31, 1.46)	$< 0.001$	8,547 (20,899)	1.28 (1.20, 1.35)	$< 0.001$	2,789 (9,107)	1.12 (1.00,1.26)	0.058
Minutes of walking (linear model) Full sample
Connectivity	9,747 (23,646)	6.20 (5.13, 7.28)	$< 0.001$	9,107 (20,899)	5.23 (4.10, 6.36)	$< 0.001$	9,747 (23,646)	0.52 ( $- 3.47$ , 2.42)	0.729
Residential density	9,747 (23,646)	3.90 (3.31, 4.49)	$< 0.001$	9,107 (20,899)	3.49 (2.91, 4.09)	$< 0.001$	9,747 (23,646)	0.60 ( $- 0.73$ , 1.93)	0.375
Land use mix	9,747 (23,646)	5.59 (4.28, 6.90)	$< 0.001$	9,107 (20,899)	4.01 (2.63, 5.40)	$< 0.001$	9,747 (23,646)	0.32 ( $- 2.89$ , 3.52)	0.847
Restricted to walkers
Connectivity	5,022 (8,981)	1.32 ( $- 0.83$ , 3.46)	0.002	4,752 (8,518)	1.09 ( $- 1.04$ , 3.22)	0.004	5,022 (8,981)	$- 4.57$ ( $- 11.60$ , 2.47)	0.203
Residential density	5,022 (8,981)	1.65 (0.61, 2.69)	0.08	4,752 (8,518)	1.50 (0.48, 2.53)	0.21	5,022 (8,981)	0.85 ( $- 1.96$ , 3.65)	0.555
Land use mix	5,022 (8,981)	1.74 ( $- 0.21$ , 3.71)	0.23	4,752 (8,518)	1.25 ( $- 0.70$ , 3.21)	0.32	5,022 (8,981)	1.45 ( $- 4.69$ , 7.58)	0.644

^{^a}

Random effects model adjusted for age, sex, income, occupation, and area disadvantage.

^{^b}

Random effects model with additional adjustment for preference for walking.

^{^c}

Fixed effects models adjusted for time invariant confounding. Logistic and linear models are based only on data for participants who experienced a change in the predictor over time; logistic model estimates are additionally limited to participants who experienced a change in walking for transport.

^{^d}

ORs (95% CI) from logistic regression models for any walking vs. no walking, and beta coefficients (95% CI) from linear regression models representing the difference in mean minutes of walking, in association with an increase over time in connectivity (10 additional four-way intersections within $1 km$ ), residential density (five additional dwellings per hectare within $1 km$ ), and land-use mix (10% increase in heterogeneity within $1 km$ ), respectively.