Table 2.
Coffee consumption and cancer risk in the Multiethnic Cohort Study, 1993-2012a
| No. of cases | Coffee consumption
|
Ptrend | Per cup | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| None | 1-3 cups/month | 1-6 cups/week | 1 cup/day | 2-3 cups/day | ≥4 cups/day | ||||
| All cancers | 34,031 | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.00 (0.95-1.06) | 1.00 (0.96-1.05) | 0.99 (0.95-1.03) | 0.98 (0.94-1.02) | 0.96 (0.91-1.01) | 0.05 | 0.99 (0.98-1.00) |
| Prostate | 7,508 | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.94 (0.84-1.05) | 0.99 (0.91-1.08) | 0.95 (0.88-1.03) | 0.98 (0.91-1.07) | 0.89 (0.79-1.00) | 0.29 | 0.99 (0.97-1.01) |
| Aggressiveb | 3,378 | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.90 (0.75-1.06) | 1.02 (0.89-1.17) | 1.00 (0.89-1.12) | 1.01 (0.89-1.13) | 0.92 (0.77-1.08) | 0.62 | 0.99 (0.96-1.02) |
| Female breast | 5,240 | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.04 (0.91-1.18) | 1.05 (0.94-1.18) | 1.06 (0.97-1.17) | 1.07 (0.97-1.18) | 1.08 (0.93-1.25) | 0.21 | 1.02 (0.99-1.04) |
| Colorectum | 4,096 | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.04 (0.89-1.21) | 0.99 (0.87-1.13) | 0.97 (0.87-1.09) | 1.06 (0.94-1.18) | 1.11 (0.95-1.30) | 0.08 | 1.02 (0.99-1.05) |
| Lung | 3,954 | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.85 (0.70-1.04) | 0.91 (0.78-1.06) | 1.04 (0.91-1.18) | 1.06 (0.93-1.21) | 1.08 (0.92-1.26) | 0.04 | 1.03 (1.00-1.06) |
| NHL | 2,580 | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.16 (0.95-1.40) | 1.07 (0.91-1.26) | 1.16 (1.01-1.32) | 1.11 (0.96-1.28) | 1.19 (0.98-1.45) | 0.36 | 1.02 (0.98-1.05) |
| Stomach | 1,156 | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.08 (0.80-1.46) | 0.99 (0.77-1.27) | 0.91 (0.73-1.12) | 0.99 (0.79-1.23) | 1.13 (0.83-1.53) | 0.45 | 1.01 (0.96-1.07) |
| Pancreas | 1,136 | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.29 (0.97-1.72) | 1.20 (0.94-1.52) | 1.06 (0.86-1.30) | 1.10 (0.88-1.37) | 1.10 (0.81-1.50) | 0.92 | 1.01 (0.96-1.06) |
| Melanoma | 921 | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.76 (0.54-1.07) | 0.85 (0.65-1.12) | 0.97 (0.79-1.21) | 0.68 (0.54-0.86) | 0.72 (0.52-0.99) | 0.002 | 0.92 (0.87-0.97) |
| Kidney | 838 | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.77 (0.54-1.11) | 1.20 (0.93-1.56) | 0.98 (0.78-1.24) | 0.86 (0.67-1.10) | 0.89 (0.64-1.23) | 0.13 | 0.95 (0.90-1.01) |
| Endometriumc | 838 | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.79 (0.57-1.11) | 0.98 (0.75-1.29) | 0.92 (0.73-1.15) | 0.90 (0.71-1.15) | 0.68 (0.45-1.03) | 0.22 | 0.96 (0.90-1.02) |
| Liver | 670 | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.10 (0.76-1.58) | 0.97 (0.71-1.32) | 0.88 (0.68-1.15) | 0.64 (0.48-0.85) | 0.57 (0.38-0.87) | <0.001 | 0.85 (0.79-0.91) |
| Bladder | 651 | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.98 (0.64-1.52) | 1.09 (0.77-1.53) | 1.08 (0.81-1.45) | 1.16 (0.86-1.56) | 0.88 (0.58-1.32) | 0.94 | 1.01 (0.94-1.07) |
| Ovaryd | 404 | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.89 (0.55-1.44) | 0.67 (0.44-1.03) | 0.82 (0.59-1.13) | 0.72 (0.51-1.03) | 0.33 (0.17-0.65) | 0.007 | 0.85 (0.77-0.94) |
| Thyroid | 320 | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.74 (0.43-1.29) | 1.03 (0.68-1.55) | 1.01 (0.71-1.44) | 0.73 (0.50-1.07) | 0.44 (0.23-0.87) | 0.007 | 0.87 (0.79-0.97) |
| Gallbladdere | 292 | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.53 (0.85-2.77) | 1.10 (0.65-1.87) | 1.33 (0.86-2.07) | 1.26 (0.79-2.01) | 1.78 (0.98-3.22) | 0.22 | 1.05 (0.95-1.16) |
| Esophagus | 272 | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.83 (1.00-3.35) | 1.04 (0.60-1.80) | 1.20 (0.76-1.89) | 0.96 (0.60-1.54) | 1.03 (0.57-1.86) | 0.34 | 0.95 (0.86-1.06) |
Abbreviation: NHL, non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Hazard ratio (95% confidence interval). The following variables were included to rigorously control for the effects of smoking: ethnicity, smoking status, average number of cigarettes, squared average number of cigarettes, number of years smoked (time-dependent), number of years since quitting (time-dependent), and interactions between ethnicity and smoking status, average number of cigarettes, squared average number of cigarettes and number of years smoked. The models were further adjusted for sex, age at cohort entry, body mass index, education, alcohol intake, physical activity, history of diabetes, family history of corresponding cancer, and menopausal status and menopausal hormone therapy for women only.
Advanced stage or high grade.
Excluding female participants who reported hysterectomy at baseline.
Excluding female participants who reported oophorectomy at baseline.
Excluding participants who reported cholecystectomy at baseline.