Table 2.

Clinical studies using cultured MSCs for the treatment of bone defects.

References	Cell type	Biomaterials/grafts	Delivery method	Patient's group	Average follow up	Outcome
Kawate et al. (2006)	BM MSCs	β-TCP ceramics and free vascularized fibula	Local implantation of BM MSC/ β-TCP composites with free vascularized fibula	Steroid-induced osteonecrosis N = 3	27–48 months	Osteonecrosis did not progress any further and early bone regeneration was observed
Quarto et al. (2001); Marcacci et al. (2007)	BM MSCs	Porous HA ceramic	Local implantation, 2.0 × 107MSCs per ml mixed with biomaterial	Large long bone defects N = 3, 4–7 cm segment from tibia, ulna, humerus	6–7 years	No complications observed. Complete fusion between implant and host bone 5–7 months post surgery. At 6–7 years post surgery good integration was maintained and no late fractures observed
Kim et al. (2009)	Osteogenically differentiated BM MSCs	–	Local injection, 1.2 × 107 MSCs per 0.4 ml mixed with fibrin at 1:1 ratio	Various long bone fractures N = 64	2 months	No complications observed. Autologous osteoblast injection resulted in significant fracture healing acceleration
Zhao et al. (2012)	BM MSCs	–	Local injection, 2.0 × 106 MSCs in 2 ml of saline	AVN of femoral head N = 53	5 years	No complications observed. At 5 years post surgery only 2 of the 53 BM MSC-treated femoral heads progressed and underwent vascularized bone grafting. Improved measures of femoral head function and decreased volume of the necrotic lesion
Giannotti et al. (2013)	Osteogenically differentiated BM MSCs	–	Local implantation, 0.5–2.0 × 106 MSCs in 2 ml of fibrin clot	Upper limb non-unions N = 8	6 years and 3 months	No complications observed. All patients recovered limb function with no evidence of tissue overgrowth or tumor formation
Aoyama et al. (2014)	BM MSCs	β-TCP ceramics combined with vascularized bone grafts	Local implantation, 0.5–1.0 × 108 MSCs mixed with β-TCP and vascularized bone grafts	AVN of femoral head N = 10	24 months	No complications observed. All procedures were successfully performed and some young patients with extensive necrotic lesions with pain demonstrated good bone regeneration with amelioration of symptoms.
Cai et al. (2014)	BMMNCs and UC MSCs	-	Infusion in femoral artery of 60–80 mL of BMMNCs and 30–50 mL of UC MSCs	AVN of femoral head N = 30	12 months	No complications observed. After the treatment, 28/30, 26/30, and 26/30 of patients showed relief of hip pain, improvement of joint function, and extended walking distances, respectively.