Table 2.
Adjusted mean dietary intakes (95 % CI) by categories of sleep duration, variability, timing and quality: young adults aged 20–30 years, Minneapolis/St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota, USA, 2008–2009, Project EAT (Eating and Activity in Teens and Young Adults)
| Time in bed | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <7 h per night (N 203) | 7–<8 h per night (N 471) (referent) | 8–<9 h per night (N 642) | ≥9 h per night (N 457) | |||||
| Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | |
| Caffeinated drinks† | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·87* | 0·71, 1·04 | 0·66 | 0·57, 0·75 | 0·68 | 0·60, 0·77 | 0·74 | 0·63, 0·85 |
| Model 2 | 0·87* | 0·71, 1·04 | 0·67 | 0·58, 0·76 | 0·70 | 0·61, 0·78 | 0·71 | 0·61, 0·82 |
| Sugar-sweetened beverages‡ | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·99 | 0·79, 1·18 | 0·85 | 0·74, 0·97 | 0·83 | 0·73, 0·93 | 0·94 | 0·79, 1·09 |
| Model 2 | 0·99 | 0·80, 1·17 | 0·86 | 0·74, 0·98 | 0·85 | 0·75, 0·94 | 0·91 | 0·76, 1·05 |
| Sugar-free beverages§ | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·47 | 0·33, 0·62 | 0·36 | 0·29, 0·43 | 0·33 | 0·28, 0·39 | 0·33 | 0·26, 0·40 |
| Model 2 | 0·47 | 0·32, 0·61 | 0·36 | 0·29, 0·43 | 0·34 | 0·28, 0·40 | 0·32 | 0·25, 0·39 |
| Breakfast consumption | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 3·78 | 3·41, 4·14 | 3·94 | 3·72, 4·15 | 4·07 | 3·87, 4·27 | 3·66 | 3·39, 3·92 |
| Model 2 | 3·77 | 3·42, 4·12 | 3·92 | 3·70, 4·14 | 4·04 | 3·84, 4·24 | 3·69 | 3·43, 3·95 |
| Fast-food consumption | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 1·56 | 1·26, 1·85 | 1·53 | 1·38, 1·69 | 1·58 | 1·45, 1·71 | 1·72 | 1·56, 1·89 |
| Model 2 | 1·56 | 1·27, 1·85 | 1·55 | 1·39, 1·70 | 1·60 | 1·47, 1·73 | 1·71 | 1·54, 1·88 |
| Sleep variability | ||||||||
| <0·5 h (N 339) (referent) | 0·5–<1 h (N 364) | 1–1·5 h (N 571) | >1·5 h (N 200) | |||||
| Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | |
| Caffeinated drinks | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·71 | 0·59, 0·84 | 0·72 | 0·60, 0·83 | 0·67 | 0·59, 0·75 | 0·76 | 0·66, 0·86 |
| Model 2 | 0·72 | 0·60, 0·84 | 0·71 | 0·60, 0·83 | 0·68 | 0·60, 0·77 | 0·75 | 0·66, 0·84 |
| Model 3 | 0·72 | 0·59, 0·84 | 0·71 | 0·60, 0·83 | 0·69 | 0·60, 0·77 | 0·75 | 0·65, 0·84 |
| Sugar-sweetened beverages | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·95 | 0·79, 1·10 | 0·86 | 0·73, 1·00 | 0·86 | 0·74, 0·98 | 0·88 | 0·76, 0·99 |
| Model 2 | 0·95 | 0·80, 1·10 | 0·86 | 0·73, 0·99 | 0·88 | 0·76, 1·00 | 0·86 | 0·75, 0·97 |
| Model 3 | 0·95 | 0·79, 1·10 | 0·86 | 0·73, 0·99 | 0·88 | 0·76, 1·00 | 0·86 | 0·75, 0·97 |
| Sugar-free drinks | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·29 | 0·22, 0·36 | 0·38 | 0·29, 0·47 | 0·34 | 0·28, 0·40 | 0·39* | 0·32, 0·47 |
| Model 2 | 0·30 | 0·22, 0·37 | 0·38 | 0·29, 0·47 | 0·35 | 0·28, 0·41 | 0·39 | 0·31, 0·46 |
| Model 3 | 0·30 | 0·23, 0·38 | 0·38 | 0·29, 0·47 | 0·35 | 0·28, 0·41 | 0·39 | 0·31, 0·46 |
| Breakfast consumption | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 3·81 | 3·52, 4·10 | 4·09 | 3·85, 4·33 | 3·95 | 3·74, 4·17 | 3·74 | 3·51, 3·97 |
| Model 2 | 3·77 | 3·49, 4·06 | 4·09 | 3·85, 4·33 | 3·93 | 3·71, 4·15 | 3·77 | 3·54, 4·00 |
| Model 3 | 3·81 | 3·52, 4·10 | 4·07 | 3·83, 4·31 | 3·94 | 3·72, 4·16 | 3·75 | 3·52, 3·98 |
| Fast food consumption | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 1·47 | 1·30, 1·64 | 1·60 | 1·41, 1·79 | 1·53 | 1·40, 1·67 | 1·77* | 1·60, 1·93 |
| Model 2 | 1·49 | 1·31, 1·66 | 1·61 | 1·42, 1·79 | 1·55 | 1·41, 1·68 | 1·76* | 1·59, 1·93 |
| Model 3 | 1·45 | 1·27, 1·63 | 1·62 | 1·43, 1·80 | 1·55 | 1·41, 1·68 | 1·77* | 1·60, 1·94 |
| Sleep timing | ||||||||
| ≤22.30 hours (N 327) (referent) | 22.30–23.30 hours (N 497) | 23.30–00.30 hours (N 390) | >00.30 hours (N 560) | |||||
| Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | |
| Caffeinated drinks | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·64 | 0·53, 0·75 | 0·66 | 0·57, 0·75 | 0·72 | 0·61, 0·82 | 0·80* | 0·71, 0·90 |
| Model 2 | 0·66 | 0·55, 0·77 | 0·67 | 0·57, 0·76 | 0·71 | 0·61, 0·82 | 0·79 | 0·69, 0·88 |
| Model 3 | 0·67 | 0·56, 0·78 | 0·68 | 0·58, 0·77 | 0·71 | 0·61, 0·82 | 0·77 | 0·68, 0·87 |
| Sugar-sweetened beverages | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·73 | 0·60, 0·87 | 0·78 | 0·68, 0·87 | 0·88 | 0·75, 1·02 | 1·05** | 0·93, 1·18 |
| Model 2 | 0·75 | 0·61, 0·88 | 0·79 | 0·69, 0·90 | 0·88 | 0·75, 1·01 | 1·04** | 0·92, 1·16 |
| Model 3 | 0·75 | 0·61, 0·88 | 0·80 | 0·69, 0·90 | 0·88 | 0·75, 1·02 | 1·04** | 0·91, 1·16 |
| Sugar-free beverages | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·36 | 0·28, 0·45 | 0·32 | 0·26, 0·39 | 0·38 | 0·29, 0·47 | 0·36 | 0·29, 0·43 |
| Model 2 | 0·38 | 0·29, 0·46 | 0·33 | 0·27, 0·39 | 0·38 | 0·29, 0·47 | 0·35 | 0·29, 0·42 |
| Model 3 | 0·39 | 0·31, 0·48 | 0·34 | 0·27, 0·40 | 0·37 | 0·28, 0·46 | 0·34 | 0·27, 0·41 |
| Breakfast consumption | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 4·98 | 4·70, 5·25 | 4·11*** | 3·88, 4·35 | 3·73*** | 3·48, 3·98 | 3·18*** | 2·97, 3·39 |
| Model 2 | 4·94 | 4·66, 5·22 | 4·10*** | 3·87, 4·33 | 3·73*** | 3·48, 3·98 | 3·21*** | 3·00, 3·42 |
| Model 3 | 4·99 | 4·70, 5·27 | 4·11*** | 3·87, 4·34 | 3·71*** | 3·47, 3·96 | 3·19*** | 2·97, 3·40 |
| Fast food consumption | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 1·43 | 1·26, 1·60 | 1·51 | 1·36, 1·66 | 1·73* | 1·54, 1·91 | 1·70* | 1·54, 1·86 |
| Model 2 | 1·46 | 1·28, 1·63 | 1·52 | 1·37, 1·67 | 1·73* | 1·54, 1·91 | 1·69 | 1·53, 1·85 |
| Model 3 | 1·43 | 1·26, 1·61 | 1·51 | 1·36, 1·66 | 1·74* | 1·55, 1·92 | 1·70* | 1·54, 1·86 |
| Sleep quality║ | ||||||||
| Not at all (N 604) (referent) | Somewhat (N 811) | Very much (N 358) | ||||||
| Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | Mean | 95 % CI | |||
| Caffeinated beverages | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·63 | 0·55, 0·71 | 0·72 | 0·65, 0·80 | 0·83** | 0·71, 0·95 | ||
| Model 2 | 0·70 | 0·61, 0·78 | 0·72 | 0·64, 0·80 | 0·73 | 0·61, 0·85 | ||
| Model 3 | 0·70 | 0·62, 0·79 | 0·72 | 0·64, 0·80 | 0·71 | 0·59, 0·83 | ||
| Sugar-sweetened beverages | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·82 | 0·73, 0·92 | 0·85 | 0·75, 0·95 | 1·06* | 0·89, 1·22 | ||
| Model 2 | 0·89 | 0·78, 1·00 | 0·85 | 0·75, 0·95 | 0·95 | 0·78, 1·12 | ||
| Model 3 | 0·89 | 0·78, 1·00 | 0·85 | 0·75, 0·95 | 0·94 | 0·77, 1·10 | ||
| Sugar-free beverages | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 0·30 | 0·24, 0·35 | 0·37 | 0·31, 0·43 | 0·42* | 0·33, 0·52 | ||
| Model 2 | 0·33 | 0·27, 0·39 | 0·36 | 0·30, 0·42 | 0·40 | 0·30, 0·49 | ||
| Model 3 | 0·33 | 0·27, 0·39 | 0·36 | 0·31, 0·42 | 0·39 | 0·29, 0·48 | ||
| Breakfast consumption | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 4·15 | 3·93, 4·37 | 3·98 | 3·80, 4·16 | 3·27** | 3·02, 3·51 | ||
| Model 2 | 4·04 | 3·81, 4·27 | 3·98 | 3·80, 4·16 | 3·42** | 3·16, 3·68 | ||
| Model 3 | 4·03 | 3·81, 4·26 | 3·98 | 3·80, 4·16 | 3·43** | 3·17, 3·69 | ||
| Fast food consumption | ||||||||
| Model 1 | 1·50 | 1·36, 1·63 | 1·64 | 1·52, 1·76 | 1·70 | 1·49, 1·92 | ||
| Model 2 | 1·59 | 1·44, 1·74 | 1·62 | 1·50, 1·74 | 1·60 | 1·37, 1·82 | ||
| Model 3 | 1·59 | 1·44, 1·74 | 1·62 | 1·50, 1·74 | 1·60 | 1·37, 1·82 | ||
Model 1 adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education and marital status.
Model 2 added depression and physical activity.
Model 3 added time in bed.
Beverages measured in servings per day; breakfast and fast food servings per week.
*P<0·05, **P<0·01, ***P<0·001 compared with the referent category.
Caffeinated beverages were defined as low-calorie beverages with caffeine (e.g. Diet Coke, Diet Mountain Dew), carbonated beverages with caffeine and sugar (e.g. Coke, Pepsi, Mountain Dew, Dr. Pepper), tea with caffeine including green tea, coffee with caffeine and dairy coffee drink (e.g. cappuccino).
Sugar-sweetened beverages were defined as carbonated beverages with caffeine and sugar, other carbonated beverages with sugar (e.g. 7-Up, Root Beer, Ginger Ale, Caffeine-Free Coke) and other sugared beverages (punch, lemonade, sports drinks or sugared ice tea).
Sugar-free beverages were defined as low-calorie beverages with caffeine and other low-calorie beverages without caffeine (e.g. Diet 7-Up).
Sleep quality was assessed via the following question: ‘During the past 12 months, how often have you been bothered or troubled by having trouble going to sleep or staying asleep?’