Table 1.

Applications of VLRs in Biomedical Research

	Application	VLR function	Result	References
Therapeutic targeting	Inhibit signaling pathway	IL6 binder	Inhibits IL-6 induced signaling pathway in non-small cell lung cancer cells	[29]
	Inhibit signaling pathway	C5a binder	Inhibits C5a pathway to suppress proinflammatory response	[27]
	Inhibit signaling pathway	VEGF binder	Blocks the VEGF signaling pathway for age-related macular degeneration	[33]
Drug delivery	CAR-VLR	B-cells and CD5 binder	Expresses on effector cells, redirect to target cells, and activates cytotoxicity	[34]
	VLR-drug conjugate	EGFR binder	Chemoenzymatically attaches drug for tumor suppression	[35]
	Nanoparticle	EGFR binder	Self-assembled nanoparticles target tumors	[36]
Diagnostics/Imaging	Biomarker discovery	CD38 binder	Novel epitope that exclusively binds PCs	[30]
	Diagnostics	TF-α binder	Stains tumor tissue with worse survival rate	[20]
	Diagnostics	Anti-idiotype binder	Used to monitor lymphocytic leukemia	[37]
	Molecular imaging	EGFR binder	In vivo tumor imaging	[38,39]
	Molecular imaging	mCherry binder	Tracks protein-protein interaction in real time	[40]
	Plant research	HopM1 binder	Expresses and binds in some plant environments	[28]
Other	Stabilization	Consensus sequence	Able to crystalize LRRTM2 by altering convex surface based on VLR sequence	[41]
	Stabilization	Stable caps	Resolves crystal structure of LRR proteins using caps comprised of VLR sequence	[42,43]
	Vaccine carrier	Multimerizing tail	Creates multimer with hidden VLR sequence resulting in high vaccine Ab titers	[44]