Fig. 3.

Net carbon change and emissions from fire and deforestation. a Classification map showing pixels with intact Amazon forests belonging to South and North, as well as fire and deforestation activities in tropical forests. b Annual contributions of fire and deforestation emissions compared to the net forest carbon change in the North region. c Annual contributions of fire and deforestation emissions compared to the net carbon change in the South region. d Cumulative contributions of net forest carbon change, fire and deforestation emissions in the South relative to the 2004 level. The colormap in panel a was generated using rainfall⁸², MODIS fire⁵⁰ and Landsat⁵¹ products. Pixels were identified as fire or deforested when at least 1% of these land-use activities were detected during our observational period. In panels b-d, the positive sign indicates carbon emission to the atmosphere, and negative emission refers to carbon sink. The error bars in estimating emissions are at 95% confidence intervals