Fig. 4. BCI-based intervention in ADHD is associated with brain network re-organization underlying behavioral improvement.

a Nodes showing significant time and group interaction effect on nodal degree, clustering coefficient, or closeness are presented. Brain network topology exhibited significant group and time interaction in nodal degree (b), clustering coefficient (c), and closeness (d) (p < 0.05). Error bars represent standard errors. Changes of nodal graph metrics by the BCI-based intervention were correlated with the behavior improvement of internalizing problems and inattention in ADHD children (e, f). ContA/B executive control network A/B (A or B refers to the subnetworks), SalVenAttn: salience/ventral attention network, DorAttn: dorsal attention network, Default: default mode network, PrCv: precentral ventral frontal cortex, PFCmp: medial posterior prefrontal cortex, PFCl: lateral prefrontal cortex, SPL: superior parietal lobule, FrMed: medial frontal cortex, PFCv: ventral prefrontal cortex