Table 1.

List of Spices

Origin	Active Ingredient	Mechanism of Action
Turmeric	Curcumin	Anti-inflammation: Inhibits NF-kB pathway. Anti-oxidant: Reduces ROS and increases ROS scavenging enzymes. Anti-carcinogenic: Suppresses TNF-α, PI3K/ AKT, mTOR, MAPK and ERK signaling.
Ginger	Gingerols, shogaols	Antiemetic: Inhibits serotonin receptors. Anti-angiogenic: Inhibits NF-kB pathway, IL-8 and VEGF-induced cell proliferation. Anti-inflammatory: Reduces expression of cytokines. Anti-carcinogenic: Inhibits growth and tumor proliferation, reduces ROS, blocks NF-kB activation and increases anti-oxidant enzymes.
Garlic	Allicin	Anti-oxidative: Prevents intracellular GSH depletion, inhibits NK-kB activation, and removes peroxides and upregulates antioxidant enzymes. Immunomodulatory effects: Inhibits both pro- and anti- inflammatory cytokines and regulates COX-2. Anti-carcinogenic: Delays onset of tumorigenesis by modulating p53 and PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, promotes apoptosis, inhibits TNF-α, IL-6 production and serum cytokine levels.
Cloves	Eugenol	Anti-oxidant: Reduces oxygen radicals, superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and increases GSH. Anti-microbial: Denatures microbial proteins, reacts with cell membrane phospholipid and inhibits the growth of microbes. Anti-carcinogenic: Inhibits proliferation, inhibits activation of COX-2, c-myc, H- ras, upregulates pro-apoptotic proteins and down-regulates anti-apoptotic proteins.
Rosemary	Rosemarinic acid, carnosic acid	Anti-oxidative: Causes free radical scavenging reduces lipid peroxidation and inhibits DPPH radicals. Anti-inflammatory: Inhibits secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and TNF-α. Anti-carcinogenic: Inhibits NF-kB activation, suppresses MMP-9, c-jun, ERK, AKT and p38 signaling and metabolic activation of pro-carcinogens and induces ROS detoxification pathway such as GST.
Saffron	Crocin, crocetin	Anti-depressant: Increases serotonin levels in the brain and inhibits serotonin reuptake in synapses. Anti-oxidant: Increases the levels of GST, catalase, SOD and GPx and suppresses ROS formation. Anti-carcinogenic: Inhibits growth of tumor cells via inhibiting nucleic acid and protein synthesis in malignant cells, induces apoptosis via activation of Bax- Bcl-2, and suppresses PI3K, AKT, Wnt, PKC activity.
Capsaicin	Capsaicin	Analgesic: Activates TRPV1 resulting in sensory neuronal depolarization and depletion of substance P. Anti-carcinogenic: Inhibits ROS, induces apoptosis, and attenuates tumor cell migration and invasion through inhibition of NF-kB activity.