Table 2.
Repurposed drugs used in Ebola virus disease therapy.
| S. No. | Method of screening | Repurposed drug | Function of drug | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | In vitro antiviral activities | Verapamil | Hypertension, angina and arrhythmia | Gehring et al. (158) |
| Teicoplanin (block a late stage of viral entry) | Glycopeptide antibiotic | Wang et al. (211) | ||
| Nocodazole | Cell arrest in G2- or M-phase | Yonezawa et al. (212) | ||
| Cytochalasin B | A mycotoxin, inhibits network formation by actin filaments | |||
| Cytochalasin D | Induces depolymerization of actin filaments | |||
| Latrunculin A | Microtubule inhibitor | |||
| Jasplakinolide | Stabilization of filamentous actin | |||
| FGI-104 | Anti-malarial | Kinch et al. (213) | ||
| Amodiaquine | Anti-malarial | Ekins et al. (214) | ||
| Chloroquine (CQ) | Anti-malarial | Madrid et al. (215); Salata et al. (216) | ||
| Amiodarone | Anti-arrhythmic | |||
| Prochlorperazine | Dopamine (D2) receptor antagonist; an antipsychotic agent | |||
| Benztropine | For treating Parkinson’s disease symptoms including muscle spasms, stiffness, tremors, sweating, drooling, and poor muscle control | |||
| Azithromycin | Macrolide antibiotics | |||
| Chlortetracycline | Antibiotics | |||
| Clomiphene | Induce ovaries to produce two or three eggs per cycle | |||
| 2 | A high-throughput assay for Zaire Ebola virus (EBOV) has been developed using the recombinant EBOV engineered to express the enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) (interfere with viral fusion-worked in in vitro and in vivo) | Clomiphene | Johansen et al. (157) | |
| Toremifene | For treating gynecomastia | |||
| 3 | Mice model (50–90% survival) | Yuan (217) | ||
| 4 | In vivo murine EBOV infection model | Bepridil | Calcium channel blocker | Johansen et al. (218) |
| Sertraline (block a late stage of viral entry) | Antidepressant | Johansen et al. (218) | ||
| 5 | Recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus containing Ebola GP protein | Tunicamycin | A nucleoside antibiotic | Takada et al. (219) |
| 6 | In human—single-arm proof-of-concept trial in Guinea pigs | Favipiravir | Broad-spectrum antiviral activity against RNA viruses | Sissoko et al. (220) |
| Mouse model (100% protection) | Oestereich et al. (221) | |||
| 7 | Vero E6 cells infected with infectious Mayinga strain of EBOV | Amiodarone | Anti-arrhythmic therapy and multiple ion channel blocker | Gehring et al. (158) |
| Dronedarone | Anti-arrhythmic therapy | |||
| Verapamil | Ca+2 channel blocker | |||
| 8 | Primary human monocyte culture | 17-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-AAG) | Inhibitor of heat-shock protein 90 | Smith et al. (222) |
| 9 | Recombinant EBOV variant Mayinga expressing enhanced GFP | Retro-2, Retro-2.1, and compound 25 | Inhibit EBOV cell entry | Shtanko et al. (144) |
| 10 | In 293T cells release of Ebola virus-like particles (VLPs) assay | Nilotinib | Treatment for chronic myeloid leukemia in chronic phase | García et al. (223) |
| 11 | Mouse infection model and Ebola VLP entry assay | Clomiphene | Induce ovaries to produce two or three eggs per cycle | Nelson et al. (224) |
| 12 | Ebola VLP entry assay | Vinblastine | Microtubule inhibitors | Kouznetsova et al. (225) |
| Vinorelbine | ||||
| Vincristine | ||||
| Colchicine | ||||
| Nocodazole | ||||
| Mebendazole | ||||
| Albendazole | ||||
| Tamoxifen | Estrogen receptor modulators | |||
| Raloxifene | ||||
| Clemastine | Antihistamine and anticholinergic activities | |||
| Maprotiline | ||||
| Benztropine | ||||
| Clomipramine | Antipsychotic/antidepressant | |||
| Thiothixene | ||||
| Trifluoperazine | ||||
| Dronedarone | Pump/channel blocker | |||
| Digoxin | Anti-arrhythmic drug | |||
| Dronedarone | ||||
| Propafenone | ||||
| Sunitinib | Receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) inhibitor | |||
| Daunomycin | Cancer treatment | |||
| Clarithromycin | Macrolide antibiotic | |||
| 13 | Ebola live virus assays | Posaconazole | Invasive aspergillosis and candidiasis treatment | Sun et al. (161) |
| 14 | Laboratory animal model C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice | Chloroquine and amodiaquine | Anti-malarial and anti-inflammatory | Madrid et al. (226) |
| 15 | Small molecule chemical screening | NSC 62914 | Scavenger of reactive oxygen species | Panchal et al. (227) |
| 16 | Rhesus macaque model of Ebola hemorrhagic fever | Recombinant nematode anti-coagulant protein c2 | Inhibitor of blood coagulation, attenuates the proinflammatory response | Geisbert et al. (228) |
| 17 | Vero E6 cells infected with Mayinga strain of Zaire EBOV | Suramin | Trypanosome-caused river blindness treatment | Henß et al. (229) |
| 18 | Computational analysis using Surflex, PLANTS, AutoDock, and AutoDock Vina | Indinavir | Human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitor | Zhao et al. (230) |
| Sinefungin | Anti-fungal | |||
| Maraviroc | Antiviral drug | |||
| Abacavir | ||||
| Telbivudine | ||||
| Cidofovir | ||||
| 19 | Computational analysis of novel drug using CANDOCK (have shown anti-EBOV potential in other modalities also) | Raloxifene | As described above in the table | Chopra et al. (231) |
| Tamoxifen | ||||
| Clemastine | ||||
| Deslanoside | ||||
| Digoxin | ||||
| Mebendazole | ||||
| Sertraline | ||||
| Niclosamide | ||||
| Sertraline | ||||