Table 2.
Mental health and functional outcomes at age 18 years among participants with remitted, persistent and late-onset ADHD compared to those who never had ADHD, further adjusting for childhood IQ and conduct disorder
| Remitted ADHD | Persistent ADHD | Late-onset ADHD | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Young adult outcome | ||||||
| Mental health | OR (95% CI) | p value | OR (95% CI) | p value | OR (95% CI) | p value |
| Depression | 1.27 (0.84, 1.92) | 0.265 | 2.68 (1.40, 5.13) | 0.003 | 3.37 (2.24, 5.06) | <0.001 |
| Anxiety | 1.10 (0.50, 2.41) | 0.811 | 6.47 (3.09,13.53) | <0.001 | 2.95 (1.72, 5.04) | <0.001 |
| Conduct disorder | 1.03 (0.66, 1.58) | 0.911 | 2.15 (1.03, 4.49) | 0.041 | 3.48 (2.20, 5.49) | <0.001 |
| Suicide/self-harm | 0.92 (0.58, 1.48) | 0.740 | 2.38 (1.13, 5.00) | 0.023 | 2.18 (1.39, 3.43) | 0.001 |
| Substance use | OR (95% CI) | p value | OR (95% CI) | p value | OR (95% CI) | p value |
| Cannabis dependence | 0.82 (0.41, 1.65) | 0.576 | 2.65 (1.05, 6.72) | 0.040 | 3.02 (1.46, 6.25) | 0.003 |
| Illicit drug use | 1.01 (0.66, 1.55) | 0.971 | 1.63 (0.82, 3.25) | 0.162 | 2.13 (1.32, 3.43) | 0.002 |
| Alcohol dependence | 1.34 (0.85, 2.12) | 0.206 | 1.01 (0.39, 2.61) | 0.988 | 3.70 (2.38, 5.76) | <0.001 |
| Psychosocial | β (95% CI) | p value | β (95% CI) | p value | β (95% CI) | p value |
| Life satisfaction | -0.03 (-0.07, 0.02) | 0.251 | -0.08 (-0.14, -0.01) | 0.021 | -0.14 (-0.19, -0.08) | <0.001 |
| Social isolation | -0.01 (-0.07, 0.04) | 0.653 | 0.03 (-0.04, 0.09) | 0.413 | 0.06 (0.01, 0.11) | 0.025 |
| Problematic technology use | 0.03 (-0.03, 0.08) | 0.337 | 0.14 (0.07, 0.21) | <0.001 | 0.23 (0.17, 0.28) | <0.001 |
| Physical health | OR (95% CI) | p value | OR (95% CI) | p value | OR (95% CI) | p value |
| Obesity | 1.63 (0.91, 2.93) | 0.098 | 2.18 (0.91, 5.23) | 0.080 | 1.19 (0.63, 2.26) | 0.597 |
| Daily cigarette smoking | 1.56 (1.07, 2.28) | 0.021 | 1.53 (0.79, 2.95) | 0.203 | 2.24 (1.45, 3.47) | <0.001 |
| Emergency department visit | 1.10 (0.75, 1.63) | 0.616 | 1.55 (0.84, 2.87) | 0.164 | 1.69 (1.10, 2.58) | 0.016 |
| Socioeconomic | OR (95% CI) | p value | OR (95% CI) | p value | OR (95% CI) | p value |
| Low educational attainment | 3.39 (2.27, 5.07) | <0.001 | 5.84 (3.12, 10.91) | <0.001 | 1.98 (1.20, 3.25) | 0.007 |
| NEET status | 2.05 (1.32, 3.18) | 0.001 | 2.76 (1.33, 5.73) | 0.006 | 1.57 (0.87, 2.86) | 0.136 |
| Criminal cautions/convictions | 1.65 (1.08, 2.50) | 0.020 | 1.51 (0.75, 3.06) | 0.250 | 1.42 (0.74, 2.73) | 0.289 |
Comparison group is those who never had ADHD. Analyses adjusted for gender and parental SES. Statistically significant results are presented in bold. OR=odds ratio, β=standardized beta, CI=confidence interval, NEET = not in education, employment or training.