Table 6.

Summary of the protective effects of red wine in relation to chronic diseases.

Effect	Mechanism of Action	Study Model	Refs.
Anti-inflammatory	Prevented aortic lipid deposition, inhibited phosphorylation activation, nuclear translocation, mitochondrial destabilization, prevented the formation of oxygen free radicals, increased antioxidant activity	Hamsters, human cells, humans	[21,26,38,54,67]
	Inhibition of nitric oxide production, progression of the malignant phase of intestinal cancer	Rats	[69,75]
Antidiabetic	Prevention of diabetes	In vivo and in vitro models, humans	[10,18,47]
	Enhanced utilization of glucose and controlled the level of oxidative stress under diabetic conditions	Rats	[26,30]
	Decreased the glucose level	Rats	[15,80]
Cardioprotective	Reduced the risk of cardiovascular diseases	Humans, swine, rats	[6,44]
	Decreased the oxidative stress	Human cells, humans, rats, hamsters	[79,83,84,85,86,87]
	Hypertension, hypertrophy, coronary artery disease, and arteriosclerosis	Humans	[21,22,31,43]