Figure 4.

FA-stimulated cytokine release in β-cells, followed by macrophage recruitment, as follows: example of stimulation of IL-1β expression by the concerted effect of glucose and FAs (via thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) and toll-like receptors (TLR), respectively), including the stimulation of the expression of exemplar chemokines, is illustrated with the consequences for subsequent macrophage recruitment and induction of both the cytokine expression and superoxide release from the M1 macrophages into intersticia. Note that not only the depicted cytokine or chemokine types are secreted. The illustrated examples were chosen for simplicity. For information of the complete pattern, please refer to the text (Section 3.2).