Table 1.
Risk factors for renal cell carcinoma (RCC)
| Risk factor | Comment |
|---|---|
| Established risk factors | |
| Male gender | Positive association [1, 86] |
| Age | Positive association [1] |
| Obesity | Positive association with a dose response [5, 86] |
| Smoking | Positive association with a dose response [86] |
| Hypertension | Positive association with a dose response. Effect of hypertensive medication on renal cancer risk remains unclear [86, 87] |
| Renal disease | Increased risk of renal cancer in acquired cystic kidney disease, end-stage renal disease, renal transplant |
| Alcohol | Moderate alcohol intake has a protective effect relative to abstinence. There is no additional benefit for higher consumption [88–90] |
| Family history | Affected first-degree relative confers a risk of renal cancer. A number of inherited rare genetic conditions also predispose to renal cancer, including von Hippel–Lindau, hereditary papillary renal carcinoma, Birt–Hogg–Dubé syndrome, hereditary leiomyomatosis renal cell carcinoma, succinate dehydrogenase renal cell carcinoma, and tuberous sclerosis. [91] |
| Risk factors that are less well characterised | |
| Physical activity | High/strenuous physical activity is protective [92] |
| Diabetes | Positive association [93] |
| Occupational exposure | Trichloroethylene is considered a carcinogenic agent with sufficient evidence for the development of renal cancer according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer [94, 95]. Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds, cadmium and cadmium compounds, perfluorooctanoic acid printing processes and welding fumes have limited evidence according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer [95] |
| Gamma radiation and X radiation | Carcinogenic agent with sufficient evidence in humans according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer [95] |
| Analgesic use | Meta-analyses suggest acetaminophen is associated with a significant risk of developing kidney cancer. Conflicting results are available regarding non-aspirin NSAIDs. Aspirin did not demonstrate a significant association [96, 97] |
NSAIDs non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs