Table 1.

Clinically available fluorophores for fluorescence-guided brain surgery.^[64]

Fluorophore	Sodium fluorescein	PpIX (5-ALA-induced)	ICG sodium iodide
Wavelength (Ex)	494 nm	405 nm	805 nm
Wavelength (Em)	521 nm	635 nm	825 nm
Dose	8–10 mg kg−1	20 mg kg−1	0.3 mg kg−1
Admin route, imaging time	Intravenous, 5 min	Oral, 2 h	Intravenous, 15 min
Localization	Extracellular, intravascular	Intracellular	Intravascular
Targeting route	Perfusion	Biosynthesis	EPR
Specificity	NA	>95%	>90%
Advantages	Colorimetric separation	BBB permeability, brain tumor biopsy	Negligible autofluorescence
Disadvantages	Rapid photobleaching, nonspecific high background uptake, possible extravasation along with edema	Porphyria, phototoxicity, low specificity, low sensitivity, high false-negative rates	Nonspecific liver uptake, iodine allergy, liver disease, uremia
Adverse reactions	Nausea and vomiting, anaphylaxis, death	Photosensitivity, nausea, hypertension	Anaphylactic or urticarial reactions