Table 1.
Characteristics of the Sample
| Characteristic | Total (n = 439) | Male (n = 263) | Female (n = 176) | P value | n |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Income/wage (mean, 95% CI), $ | |||||
| Income | 273,490 (254,087 to 292,892) | 311,316 (287,404 to 335,228) | 213,790 (183,027 to 244,554) | < 0.001* | 379 |
| Winsorized income | 259,838 (246,268 to 273,408) | 296,773(278,599 to 314,947) | 201,546 (185,313 to 217,778) | < 0.001* | 379 |
| Winsorized income; annual hours < 95th percentile | 255,991 (242,341 to 269,640) | 291,279 (272,843 to 309,714) | 201,701 (185,174 to 218,227) | < 0.001* | 363 |
| Winsorized income; annual hours < 95th percentile; imputed gender | 257,096 (243,499 to 270,694) | 292,057 (273,662 to 310,452) | 203,084 (186,280 to 219,888) | < 0.001* | 369 |
| Winsorized income; annual hours < 95th percentile; imputed gender; non-response weights; state and practice clustered standard errors | 262,386 (202,766 to 322,006) | 297,641 (236,202 to 359,081) | 206,751 (168,377 to 245,125) | 0.017* | 365 |
| Hours (mean, 95% CI) | |||||
| Total hours worked per year | 2314 (2241 to 2388) | 2470 (2380 to 2559) | 2074 (1955 to 2192) | < 0.001* | 426 |
| Patient care hours per year | 2063 (1989 to 2136) | 2203 (2114 to 2292) | 1845 (1724 to 1966) | < 0.001* | 426 |
| Hours, cont’d (mean, 95% CI) | |||||
| Teaching hours per year | 46 (36 to 57) | 49 (36 to 63) | 42 (25 to 59) | 0.515 | 426 |
| Research hours per year | 15 (8 to 22) | 15 (6 to 24) | 17 (5 to 28) | 0.800 | 426 |
| Administration hours per year | 190 (157 to 223) | 202 (163 to 242) | 170 (111 to 229) | 0.357 | 426 |
| Other hours per year | 21 (11 to 30) | 12 (3 to 22) | 33 (14 to 53) | 0.036* | 426 |
| Specialty or specialty group (n, column %) | |||||
| Specialty: cardiology | 14 (3.2%) | 11 (4.2%) | 3 (1.7%) | 0.148 | 14 |
| Specialty: dermatology | 3 (0.7%) | 2 (0.8%) | 1 (0.6%) | 0.811 | 3 |
| Specialty: emergency medicine | 1 (0.2%) | 1 (0.4%) | 0 (0%) | 0.413 | 1 |
| Specialty: family practice | 87 (19.8%) | 44 (16.7%) | 43 (24.4%) | 0.047* | 87 |
| Specialty: general practice | 8 (1.8%) | 2 (0.8%) | 6 (3.4%) | 0.042* | 8 |
| Specialty: general pediatrics | 49 (11.1%) | 18 (6.8%) | 31 (17.6%) | < 0.001* | 49 |
| Specialty: gastroenterology | 6 (1.4%) | 4 (1.5%) | 2 (1.1%) | 0.734 | 6 |
| Specialty: general surgery | 19 (4.3%) | 14 (5.3%) | 5 (2.8%) | 0.210 | 19 |
| Specialty: internal medicine | 109 (24.8%) | 65 (24.7%) | 44 (25.0%) | 0.946 | 109 |
| Specialty: neurology | 3 (0.7%) | 3 (1.1%) | 0 (0%) | 0.155 | 3 |
| Specialty: oncology | 7 (1.6%) | 6 (2.3%) | 1 (0.6%) | 0.160 | 7 |
| Specialty: obstetrics/gynecology | 27 (6.2%) | 14 (5.3%) | 13 (7.4%) | 0.378 | 27 |
| Specialty: ophthalmology | 3 (0.7%) | 2 (0.8%) | 1 (0.6%) | 0.811 | 3 |
| Specialty: orthopedic surgery | 21 (4.8%) | 20 (7.6%) | 1 (0.6%) | 0.001* | 21 |
| Specialty: otolaryngology | 6 (1.4%) | 6 (2.3%) | 0 (0%) | 0.044* | 6 |
| Specialty: psychiatry | 3 (0.7%) | 2 (0.8%) | 1 (0.6%) | 0.811 | 3 |
| Specialty: pulmonology | 5 (1.1%) | 5 (1.9%) | 0 (0%) | 0.066 | 5 |
| Specialty: urology | 8 (1.8%) | 8 (3.0%) | 0 (0%) | 0.020* | 8 |
| Specialty: other | 57 (12.9%) | 32 (12.2%) | 25 (14.2%) | 0.534 | 57 |
| Specialty group: primary care (family practice, general practice, internal medicine, and pediatrics) | 253 (57.6%) | 129 (49.1%) | 124 (70.5%) | < 0.001* | 253 |
| Specialty group: obstetrics/gynecology | 27 (6.2%) | 14 (5.3%) | 13 (7.4%) | 0.378 | 27 |
| Specialty group: medical specialties (cardiology, dermatology, gastroenterology, neurology, oncology, and pulmonology) | 38 (8.7%) | 31 (11.8%) | 7 (4.0%) | 0.004* | 38 |
| Specialty group: surgical specialties (general surgery, otolaryngology, ophthalmology, orthopedic surgery, and urology) | 57 (13.0%) | 50 (19.0%) | 7 (4.0%) | < 0.001* | 57 |
| Specialty group: other (emergency medicine, psychiatry and other) | 61 (13.9%) | 35 (13.3%) | 26 (14.8%) | 0.664 | 61 |
| Patient care activities (n, column %) | |||||
| Percent of patient care hours: providing procedures to patients who are under general anesthesia | 0.001* | 434 | |||
| Never | 321 (74.0%) | 174 (66.9%) | 147 (84.5%) | ||
| 1–9% | 36 (8.2%) | 23 (8.9%) | 13 (7.5%) | ||
| 10–24% | 29 (6.7%) | 24 (9.2%) | 5 (2.9%) | ||
| 25–49% | 20 (4.6%) | 15 (5.8%) | 5 (2.9%) | ||
| 50–74% | 23 (5.3%) | 19 (7.3%) | 4 (2.3%) | ||
| > 75% | 5 (1.2%) | 5 (1.9%) | 0 (0%) | ||
| Percent of patient care hours: providing procedures to patients who are not under general anesthesia | 0.017* | 416 | |||
| Never | 84 (20.2%) | 39 (15.7%) | 45 (26.9%) | ||
| 1–9% | 200 (48.1%) | 117 (47.0%) | 83 (49.7%) | ||
| 10–24% | 76 (18.3%) | 52 (20.9%) | 24 (14.4%) | ||
| 25–49% | 27 (6.5%) | 19 (7.6%) | 8 (4.8%) | ||
| 50–74% | 17 (4.1%) | 14 (5.6%) | 3 (1.8%) | ||
| > 75% | 12 (2.9%) | 8 (3.2%) | 4 (2.4%) | ||
| Compensation type (n, column %) | < 0.001* | 413 | |||
| Fixed salary | 78 (18.9%) | 33 (13.1%) | 45 (28.0%) | ||
| Salary adjusted for performance | 303 (73.4%) | 190 (75.4%) | 113 (70.2%) | ||
| Shift, hourly or other time-based method | 11 (2.7%) | 11 (4.4%) | 0 (0%) | ||
| Share of practice billings or workload | 21 (5.1%) | 18 (7.1%) | 3 (1.9%) | ||
| Age (n, column %) | < 0.001* | 432 | |||
| 18–30 years old | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | ||
| 31–40 years old | 94 (21.8%) | 37 (14.2%) | 57 (33.3%) | ||
| 41–50 years old | 147 (34.0%) | 88 (33.7%) | 59 (34.5%) | ||
| 51–60 years old | 129 (29.9%) | 85 (32.6%) | 44 (25.7%) | ||
| 61–70 years old | 54 (12.5%) | 44 (16.9%) | 10 (5.9%) | ||
| 71 years old or more | 8 (1.9%) | 7 (2.7%) | 1 (0.6%) | ||
| Years in practice (n, column %) | < 0.001* | 439 | |||
| 5 years or less | 69 (15.7%) | 26 (9.9%) | 43 (24.4%) | ||
| 6–10 years | 76 (17.3%) | 42 (16.0%) | 34 (19.3%) | ||
| 11–20 years | 129 (29.4%) | 76 (28.9%) | 53 (30.1%) | ||
| 21–30 years | 111 (25.3%) | 73 (27.8%) | 38 (21.6%) | ||
| 31 years or more | 54 (12.3%) | 46 (17.5%) | 8 (4.6%) | ||
| Race (n, column %) | |||||
| White (European, Middle Eastern, other) | 345 (81.8%) | 223 (86.8%) | 122 (73.9%) | 0.018* | 422 |
| Black or African American | 9 (2.1%) | 3 (1.2%) | 6 (3.6%) | ||
| American Indian or Alaskan | 3 (0.7%) | 1 (0.4%) | 2 (1.2%) | ||
| Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | 2 (0.5%) | 0 (0%) | 2 (1.2%) | ||
| Asian | 59 (14.0%) | 28 (10.9%) | 31 (18.8%) | ||
| Other | 4 (1.0%) | 2 (0.8%) | 2 (1.2%) | ||
| Ethnicity (n, column %) | 0.976 | 427 | |||
| Not Hispanic or Latino | 409 (96.5%) | 247 (96.5%) | 162 (96.4%) | ||
| Hispanic or Latino | 15 (3.5%) | 9 (3.5%) | 6 (3.6%) | ||
| State (n, column %) | < 0.001* | 438 | |||
| CO | 53 (12.1%) | 38 (14.5%) | 15 (8.5%) | ||
| MA | 94 (21.5%) | 31 (11.8%) | 63 (35.8%) | ||
| NC | 76 (17.4%) | 56 (21.4%) | 20 (11.7%) | ||
| TX | 59 (13.5%) | 36 (13.5%) | 23 (13.1%) | ||
| WA | 63 (14.4%) | 41 (15.7%) | 22 (12.5%) | ||
| WI | 93 (21.2%) | 60 (22.9%) | 33 (18.8%) | ||
| Practice specialty (n, column %) | < 0.001* | 439 | |||
| Primary care | 38 (8.7%) | 18 (6.8%) | 20 (11.4%) | ||
| Single subspecialty | 64 (14.6%) | 54 (20.2%) | 11 (6.3%) | ||
| Multispecialty | 337 (76.8%) | 192 (73.0%) | 145 (82.4%) | ||
| Ownership model (n, column %) | 0.006* | 439 | |||
| Physician-owned or partnership | 205 (46.7%) | 137 (52.1%) | 68 (38.6%) | ||
| Hospital or corporate owned | 234 (53.5%) | 126 (47.9%) | 108 (61.4%) | ||
| Practice size (n, column %) | 0.230 | 439 | |||
| ≤ 9 physicians | 28 (6.4%) | 17 (6.5%) | 11 (6.3%) | ||
| 10–49 physicians | 188 (42.8%) | 121 (46.0%) | 67 (38.1%) | ||
| ≥ 50 physicians | 223 (50.8%) | 125 (47.3%) | 98 (55.7%) | ||
*P < 0.05; P values reflect two-sided t tests or chi-squared tests for continuous and binary or categorical variables, respectively