Table 2.

Main stimuli involved in NF-κB activation.

Pattern recognition receptors ligands (including PAMPs and DAMPs)

Cytokines (such as TNF-α, IL-1, IL-2, IL-17, IFNs)

T-cell receptor signals

B-cell receptor signals

Oxidative stress, hypoxia

Radiation (such as UV radiation, γ-radiation)

Mitogen-activated protein kinase signals

DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns; IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin; PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor α; UV: ultraviolet.