Table 2. Longitudinal studies examining the association between hand and cognitive performance.
| Reference (First author and year of publication) |
Dataset, Country |
n male: M% |
Mean (SD) age (range) |
Years of education mean (SD) |
Cognitive function tests | Hand function tests | Main outcome: Association |
| Alfaro-Acha, 200644 | H-EPESE, USA | 2,160 M: 42.5% |
71.9 (5.9) | 5.3 (3.9) | MMSE | Jamar® hydraulic hand dynamometer |
The weakest handgrip strength at baseline significantly correlated with lower MMSE at each follow-up (P < 0.001) in both genders and remained significant over 7 years, even after covariate adjustment. |
| Atkinson, 201052 | WHIMS, USA | 1,793 M: 0% |
70.3 (3.7) (65–80) |
<High School (7%) | 3MS | Standard hand dynamometer | Baseline 3MS associated with weaker handgrip strength (P < 0.05) cross-sectionally and over 6-year follow-up. Baseline handgrip strength did not predict 3MS score changes longitudinally. |
| Auyeung, 201147 | Community-dwelling OA, China | 2,737 M: 55% |
M: 71.6 (4.6) F: 71.5 (4.9) |
M 7.9 (5.1) F 5.0 (5.0) |
MMSE | Jamar® hydraulic hand dynamometer |
After 4 years of the study, weaker handgrip strength significantly correlated with lower MMSE (P < 0.001), after covariate adjustment (P < 0.01) in both genders. |
| Boyle, 201046 | The Rush Memory and Aging Project, USA | 761 M: 23.6% |
79.0 (7.1) (54–100) |
14.5 (3.2) | Episodic memory: Story A from LM, EBS, WLM, WLRc, WLRcg; Semantic memory: 15-item BNT, VF, 15-item RT; Visuospatial ability: 15-item JLO, 16-item SPM; Working memory: DSF, DSB, DO; Perceptual speed: SDMT, NC, SNST; MMSE |
Jamar® hydraulic hand dynamometer |
Baseline weaker handgrip strength associated with the risk of MCI (P < 0.01) over 12 years, even after covariate adjustment. Baseline physical frailty associated with a faster decline in global cognition, episodic memory, sematic memory, visuospatial abilities, working memory, and perceptual speed. |
| Charles, 200651 | HHP and HAAS | 3,522 100% |
52.6 (4.7) (46–68) |
10.5 (3.2) | CASI | Smedley hand dynamometer | After 25 years of follow-up, decline in handgrip strength significantly correlated with lower CASI scores (P < 0.001). |
| Deeg, 199248 | Koganei Study, Japan |
240 M: 45.0% |
(69–71) | High School (42%) | The Benton Visual Retention test | Standard hand dynamometer | The visual memory test predicted handgrip strength changes only in men (P < 0.05) over 10 years of study. |
| Praetorius Bjork, 201650 |
OCTO-Twin Study, Sweden | 449 M: 35.6% |
83.5 (3.2) | 7.3 (2.5) | Episodic memory: MRT, PR, TPM; Semantic memory: IT (modified WAIS); Short-term memory: DSF; Visuospatial ability: BD, FLT; Working memory: DSB; Motor & Perceptual speed: SDSST |
Martin vigorimeter | Performance of all cognitive tests: episodic memory, semantic memory, visuospatial ability, perceptual speed (P < 0.001); working memory (P = 0.001); short-term memory (P < 0.01) associated with handgrip strength. The rate of change of episodic memory, semantic memory and visuospatial ability (P < 0.01); and short-term memory (P = 0.056) associated with grip strength before death. |
| Raji, 200549 | H-EPESE, USA | 2,381 M: 43.0% |
72.1 (6.0) | 4.9 (3.9) | MMSE | Jamar® hydraulic hand dynamometer |
Lower MMSE (<21) correlated with weaker handgrip strength (P < 0.001) cross-sectionally and over 7-years (P < 0.001), even after covariate adjustment. |
| Samper-Ternent, 200845 |
H-EPESE, USA | 1,370 (684 non-frail) M: 59.0% |
73.1 (4.8) | 5.9 (4.1) | MMSE | Jamar® hydraulic hand dynamometer |
Over 10 years, MMSE scores remained significantly lower in frail subjects than non-frail subjects, even after covariate adjustment (P < 0.001). Frail subjects had lower handgrip strength (P < 0.001). |
| Taekema, 201253 | Leiden 85-plus Study, The Netherlands | 555 35% |
85 | ≤Elementary School (63.6%) |
MMSE Memory: 12-PLT; Attention: Abbreviated Stroop test Processing speed: LDST |
Jamar® hydraulic hand dynamometer |
After 4 years of follow-up, performance of all cognitive tests associated with decline in handgrip strength, even after covariate adjustment (P < 0.05). However, baseline handgrip strength only associated with decline in MMSE scores (P = 0.007). |
| Veronese, 201657 | Community-dwelling OA, China | 1,249 M: 40.5% |
72.2 (5.8) (65–96) |
>5 years: (19.7%) | MMSE CI: MMSE<24 CD: MMSE 24–27 |
Jamar® hydraulic hand dynamometer |
Unadjusted values showed that baseline weaker handgrip strength associated with cognitive impairment at 4 years of follow-up (P < 0.001). However, no association was found after covariate adjustment. |
H-EPESE, Hispanic established population for the epidemiological study of the elderly; MMSE, mini-mental state examination; WHIMS, women’s health initiative memory study; 3MS, the modified mini-mental state examination; OA, older adults; LM, logical memory; EBS, the east Boston story; WLM, word list memory; WLRc, word list recall; WLRcg, word list recognition; BNT, the Boston naming test; VF, verbal fluency; RT, reading test; JLO, judgement of line orientation; SPM, standard progressive matrices; DSF, digit span forward; DSB, digit span backward; DO, digit ordering; SDMT, symbol digit modalities test; NC, number comparison; SNST, Stroop neuropsychological screening test; HHP, the Honolulu heart program; HAAS, the Honolulu-Asia aging study; CASI, cognitive abilities screening index instrument; MRT, the memory-in-reality test; PR, prose recall; TPM, Thurstone’s picture memory; IT, information test; WAIS, the Wechsler adult intelligence scale; BD, block design; FLT, the figure logic task; SDSST, speeded digit-symbol substitution test; 12-PLT, 12-picture learning test; LDST, letter digit substitution task; CI, cognitive impairment; CD, cognitive decline.