Table 4. Logistic regression of underweight and stunting on selected determinants, Malawi Demographic and Health Survey, 1992 to 2015–16.
|
Underweight (weight-for-age < -2 SD) |
Stunting (height-for-age < -2 SD) |
|||
| Variable | OR | 95%CI | OR | 95%CI |
| Household characteristics | ||||
| Residence | ||||
| Urban (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Rural | 1.04 | [0.87, 1.23] | 1.12 | [0.99, 1.26] |
| Region | ||||
| Northern (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Central | 1.22 | [1.07, 1.40] | 1.26 | [1.14, 1.39] |
| Southern | 1.32 | [1.15, 1.50] | 1.09 | [0.99, 1.20] |
| Wealth index | ||||
| Poorest (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Poor | 0.90 | [0.80, 1.01] | 0.87 | [0.78, 0.96] |
| Middle | 0.80 | [0.71, 0.90] | 0.83 | [0.75, 0.92] |
| Richer | 0.72 | [0.63, 0.81] | 0.70 | [0.63, 0.78] |
| Richest | 0.46 | [0.38, 0.55] | 0.48 | [0.42, 0.54] |
| Source of drinking water | ||||
| Non-improved (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Improved | 1.02 | [0.92, 1.13] | 1.03 | [0.95, 1.12] |
| Toilet facilities | ||||
| No toilet facility (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Non-improved | 0.90 | [0.80, 1.01] | 0.96 | [0.87, 1.06] |
| Improved | 0.85 | [0.70, 1.04] | 0.94 | [0.80, 1.10] |
| Maternal characteristics | ||||
| Highest education level | ||||
| No education (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Primary | 0.92 | [0.85, 1.00] | 0.93 | [0.86, 1.01] |
| Secondary+ | 0.72 | [0.59, 0.87] | 0.68 | [0.59, 0.74] |
| Mothers age (yr) | ||||
| <20 (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| 20–30 | 0.84 | [0.71, 0.99] | 0.97 | [0.85, 1.12] |
| >30 | 0.87 | [0.71, 1.07] | 0.91 | [0.76, 1.08] |
| Number of under-5 children living with mother | ||||
| 1 (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| 2–3 | 0.93 | [0.80, 1.08] | 0.97 | [0.86, 1.09] |
| 4–5 | 1.02 | [0.83, 1.26] | 0.98 | [0.83, 1.16] |
| ≥6 | 0.99 | [0.80, 1.26] | 0.96 | [0.79, 1.17] |
| Child-related characteristics | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Female | 0.80 | [0.74, 0.86] | 0.78 | [0.73, 0.83] |
| Age (mo) | ||||
| <=6 (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| 7–12 | 1.73 | [1.47, 2.03] | 1.72 | [1.51, 1.96] |
| 13–23 | 1.93 | [1.67, 2.22] | 4.59 | [4.08, 5.17] |
| 24–35 | 1.98 | [1.71, 2.28] | 5.91 | [5.22, 6.68] |
| 36–59 | 1.74 | [1.51, 2.00] | 5.02 | [4.47, 5.63] |
| Birth order | ||||
| 1 (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| 2–3 | 0.98 | [0.85, 1.13] | 0.91 | [0.82, 1.02] |
| ≥4 | 0.99 | [0.82, 1.20] | 0.94 | [0.81, 1.11] |
| Size at birth | ||||
| Small (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Average | 0.54 | [0.49, 0.60] | 0.70 | [0.64, 0.76] |
| Large | 0.38 | [0.34, 0.43] | 0.55 | [0.50, 0.61] |
| Diarrhoea | ||||
| No (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Yes | 1.30 | [1.19, 1.42] | 1.09 | [1.00, 1.18 |
| Fever | ||||
| No (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Yes | 1.18 | [1.09, 1.27] | 1.00 | [0.94, 1.07] |
| Cough | ||||
| No (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| Yes | 0.99 | [0.91, 1.07 | 1.01 | [0.95, 1.07] |
| Survey round | ||||
| 1992 (ref) | 1.00 | -- | 1.00 | -- |
| 2000 | 0.91 | [0.79, 1.05] | 0.99 | [0.88, 1.12] |
| 2004 | 0.78 | [0.68, 0.89] | 0.94 | [0.83, 1.05] |
| 2010 | 0.61 | [0.52, 0.73] | 0.75 | [0.66, 0.86] |
| 2015–16 | 0.40 | [0.32, 0.83] | 0.36 | [0.30, 0.43] |
| N | 29,906 | 28,419 | ||
| Prob > F | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | ||
Note: Ref: Reference category.