Fig 1. Schematic diagram showing the experimental design of this study.

The effects of CBNs in seed germination, growth, and development of bioenergy crops. The seeds of sorghum and switchgrass were exposed to graphene or multi-walled CNTs by addition to the growth medium. Germination and plant growth between CBN-treated and control bioenergy crops were calculated. The quantification of multi-walled CNTs inside the shoots of matured bioenergy crops was performed using the microwave induced heating (MIH) technique. For salt stress experiments, seeds were exposed to growth medium supplimented with NaCl and different concentration of CNTs or graphene (50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 μg/ml) and germination and seedling growth was monitered. The physical interaction between multi-walled CNTs and ions (Na⁺ or Cl¯) presented in salty solutions supplemented with CNTs was confirmed by measuring the electrode potential using ion-selective electrodes.