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Schematic representation of molecular pathways activated by D-aspartate in spermatogonia (Santillo et al., 2016). NMDAR = N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor; Ras = renin-angiotensin system; PI3-K = phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase; ERK = extracellular signal-regulated kinase; AKT = serine-threonine kinase; ERβ = estrogen receptor β; PCNA = proliferation cell nuclear antigen.
