FIGURE 3.

Microbehavior after paired and unpaired training. In summary of the studies by Schleyer et al. (2015b) and Paisios et al. (2017), this schematic overview shows the microbehavioral changes after paired and unpaired training. These changes depend on the valence of memory, not on the type of reinforcer. That is, larvae display the same microbehavior after reward-paired and punishment-unpaired learning on the one hand, whereas the opposite effects are observed after both punishment-paired and reward-unpaired training on the other hand. Left: after reward-paired and after punishment-unpaired training, larvae turn less while moving toward the odor source, turn more while moving away from it, and bias the direction of their turns more toward the odor source than animals under baseline conditions. As a result, they approach the odor. Right: after punishment-paired or reward-unpaired training, the same behavioral aspects are modulated, yet with opposite sign, leading to odor avoidance.