Table 2.

Meta‐analyses according to discipline and academic outcomes

Type of outcome measured	Test for heterogeneity			Test for effect
	I 2, %	Q‐statistic	p‐value	Pooled effect size (95% CI)	p‐value
All studies (n = 46)a
Examination scores (n = 41)	90.5	422.42	<0.001	0.468 (0.307, 0.629)	<0.001
Pre–post‐test change (n = 7)	82.6	34.54	<0.001	0.454 (0.139, 0.769)	0.005
Course grade (n = 9)	76.0	33.33	<0.001	0.354 (0.157, 0.552)	<0.001
OSCE (n = 2)	98.7	74.18	<0.001	3.116 (−2.219, 8.451)	0.252
Health science studies (n = 32)a
Examination scores (n = 28)	86.9	205.67	<0.001	0.451 (0.277, 0.625)	<0.001
Pre–post‐test change (n = 5)	82.3	22.58	<0.001	0.603 (0.264, 0.943)	<0.001
Course grade (n = 5)	49.4	7.91	0.095	0.440 (0.245, 0.636)	<0.001
OSCE (n = 2)	98.7	74.18	<0.001	3.116 (−2.219, 8.451)	0.252
Non‐health science studies (n = 14)a
Examination scores (n = 13)	94.4	216.19	<0.001	0.490 (0.143, 0.837)	0.006
Pre–post‐test change (n = 2)	33.2	1.50	0.221	−0.022 (−0.425, 0.381)	0.916
Course grade (n = 4)	81.8	16.50	0.001	0.274 (−0.080, 0.629)	0.130
Medical education studies (n = 14)a
Examination scores (n = 14)	80.5	66.59	<0.001	0.53 (0.31, 0.74)	<0.001
Pre–post‐test change (n = 4)	80.2	15.15	0.002	0.71 (0.31, 1.10)	<0.001
OSCE (n = 1)				5.86 (4.77, 6.95)
Pharmacy education studies (n = 9)a
Examination scores (n = 7)	92.5	80.39	<0.001	0.53 (0.12, 0.93)	0.011
Course grade (n = 3)	35.9	3.12	0.210	0.53 (0.35, 0.71)	<0.001
Nursing education studies (n = 3)a
Examination scores (n = 2)	79.0	4.76	0.029	0.20 (−0.33, 0.73)	0.468
Course grade (n = 1)				0.05 (−0.38, 0.49)
OSCE (n = 1)				0.41 (−0.17, 1.00)
Other disciplines in health science (n = 6)a
Examination scores (n = 5)	89.4	37.74	<0.001	0.20 (−0.34, 0.74)	0.470
Pre–post‐test change (n = 1)				0.26 (0.03, 0.49)
Course grade (n = 1)				0.29 (−0.21, 0.78)

^aSome studies in this classification had more than one outcome measure. CI = confidence interval.