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. 2018 Aug 14;19(8):2400. doi: 10.3390/ijms19082400

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© 2018 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Determination of heating and VNB threshold via dark-field microscopy. (A) dark-field microscopy image of JetPEI/pDNA/AuNP 5 pt complexes in ddiH₂O; (B) dark-field microscopy image upon VNB formation (VNBs indicated by yellow arrows); (C) dark-field microscopy image after VNB formation. Scalebar on the images represents 100 μm; (D) graph shows the relation between the number of VNBs and laser fluence. VNB threshold is calculated as the laser fluence needed to reach 90% of the maximum number of VNBs. The fluence for heating is selected at one-fourth of the VNB threshold; (E) the table shows the threshold values for VNB formation and heating (in J/cm²) used for JetPEI/pDNA/AuNP 5 pt complexes in further experiments.