Table 1.
Clinical, biochemical and hedonic hunger profiles of the study participants
| All (n = 211) | Non‐obese T2D (n = 105) | Obese T2D (n = 106) | P‐value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clinical profile | ||||
| Age (years) | 54.0 ± 8.6 | 55.8 ± 7.5 | 52.1 ± 9.2 | 0.001 |
| Male | 115 (54.5) | 57 (49.6) | 58 (50.4) | 0.950 |
| Education level | ||||
| Primary or below | 51 (24.2) | 27 (5.7) | 24 (22.6) | 0.116 |
| Secondary | 120 (56.9) | 64 (61.0) | 56 (52.8) | – |
| College or above | 40 (19.0) | 14 (13.3) | 26 (24.5) | – |
| Full/part‐time employment | 136 (64.5) | 66 (62.9) | 70 (66.0) | 0.629 |
| Current and ex‐smoker | 50 (23.7) | 24 (22.9) | 26 (24.5) | 0.692 |
| Current and ex‐drinker | 67 (31.8) | 32 (30.5) | 35 (33.0) | 0.683 |
| Disease duration of diabetes (years) | 8.8 ± 7.7 | 9.1 ± 7.8 | 8.5 ± 7.6 | 0.566 |
| Insulin use | 72 (34.1) | 32 (30.5) | 40 (37.7) | 0.266 |
| Weight (kg) | 78.1 ± 21.1 | 61.2 ± 8.9 | 94.8 ± 15.7 | <0.001 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 28.7 ± 6.8 | 22.7 ± 1.6 | 34.6 ± 4.3 | <0.001 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 97.6 ± 16.2 | 84.3 ± 7.4 | 110.7 ± 11.1 | <0.001 |
| Waist‐to‐hip ratio | 0.95 ± 0.07 | 0.91 ± 0.06 | 0.98 ± 0.07 | <0.001 |
| SBP (mmHg) | 131.5 ± 20.3 | 130.1 ± 21.8 | 132.9 ± 18.6 | 0.311 |
| DBP (mmHg) | 74.5 ± 11.7 | 72.0 ± 11.1 | 77.1 ± 11.7 | <0.001 |
| Biochemical profile | ||||
| FPG (mmol/L) | 7.6 ± 2.7 | 7.5 ± 2.2 | 7.7 ± 2.3 | 0.601 |
| HbA1c (%) | 7.7 ± 1.5 | 7.6 ± 1.6 | 7.7 ± 1.4 | 0.495 |
| Good glycemic control† | 81 (38.4) | 42 (40) | 39 (36.8) | 0.368 |
| TC (mmol/L) | 4.14 ± 0.86 | 4.21 ± 0.85 | 4.07 ± 0.87 | 0.274 |
| LDL‐C (mmol/L) | 2.19 ± 0.74 | 2.23 ± 0.78 | 2.15 ± 0.70 | 0.439 |
| HDL‐C (mmol/L) | 1.25 ± 0.36 | 1.34 ± 0.39 | 1.15 ± 0.30 | <0.001 |
| TG (mmol/L) | 1.33 (0.93–1.97) | 1.12 (0.79–1.77) | 1.42 (1.06–2.08) | 0.033 |
| ALP (mmol/L) | 65.6 ± 17.3 | 63.6 ± 16.9 | 67.6 ± 17.5 | 0.098 |
| ALT (mmol/L) | 29.5 ± 17.4 | 23.7 ± 9.7 | 35.1 ± 21.1 | <0.001 |
| Urate (mmol/L) | 0.36 ± 0.10 | 0.34 ± 0.03 | 0.38 ± 0.10 | 0.002 |
| Hedonic hunger profile | ||||
| PFS aggregated score | 2.17 ± 0.80 | 2.04 ± 0.80 | 2.30 ± 0.79 | 0.017 |
| Subscale ‘food available’ | 2.04 ± 0.84 | 1.87 ± 0.78 | 2.22 ± 0.86 | 0.002 |
| Subscale ‘food present’ | 2.32 ± 0.86 | 2.23 ± 0.86 | 2.42 ± 0.85 | 0.101 |
| Subscale ‘food tasted’ | 2.20 ± 0.88 | 2.10 ± 0.92 | 2.31 ± 0.84 | 0.080 |
Variables are presented as mean ± standard deviation, frequency (%) or median (interquartile range). †Good glycemic control is defined as glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) <7.0%. ALP, alkaline phosphatase level; ALT, alanine transaminase; BMI, body mass index; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; HDL‐C, high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL‐C, low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol; PFS, Power of Food Scale (as a measure for hedonic hunger); SBP, systolic blood pressure; T2D, type 2 diabetes; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglyceride.