Table 1. Summary of intervention effects for comparisons with immediate (<24h) retention intervals.
| Study/experiment | Comparison | Significant group differences (implicit vs explicit group) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Motor ST | Motor DT | Cognitive DT | Motor DTC | Cognitive DTC | Declarative knowledge | ||
| Chauvel et al. (2012) [13] | Errorless vs Errorful—Young | = | = | = | N/A | N/A | + |
| Errorless vs Errorful—Old | = | = | = | N/A | N/A | + | |
| Lam et al. (2010) [43] | Errorless vs Errorful | = | = | = | = | N/A | = |
| Masters et al. (2008b)[45] | Errorless vs Errorful | = | + | N/A | + | N/A | N/A |
| Maxwell et al. (2001)—Experiment 1 [31] | Errorless vs Errorful | = | + | = | + | N/A | = |
| Maxwell et al. (2001)—Experiment 2 [31] | Errorless vs Errorful | ? | ? | = | N/A | N/A | = |
| Poolton et al. (2005) [49] | Errorless vs Errorful | ? | ? | = | + | N/A | = |
| Poolton et al. (2007a) [51] | Errorless vs Errorful | = | = | N/A | + | N/A | + |
| Sanli et al. (2014)—Experiment 1-Test Phase 1 [53] | Errorless vs Errorful | = | = | = | = | N/A | N/A |
| Sanli et al. (2014)—Experiment 2-Test Phase 1 [53] | Errorless vs Errorful | = | = | = | = | N/A | N/A |
| Masters et al. (2008a) [44] | Errorless vs Explicit | = | = | N/A | = | N/A | + |
| Orrell et al. (2006a) [47] | Errorless vs Explicit | = | = | N/A | = | N/A | = |
| Orrell et al. (2006b)—Test phase 1 [48] | Errorless vs Explicit | = | = | N/A | = | N/A | + |
| Koedijker et al. (2007) [40] | Analogy vs Explicit | = | = | = | = | N/A | + |
| Koedijker et al. (2008)—Test phase 1 [41] | Analogy vs Explicit | = | = | = | = | N/A | + |
| Liao et al. (2001)—Experiment 1 [32] | Analogy vs Explicit | ? | ? | N/A | + | N/A | + |
| Orrell et al. (2006b)—Test phase 1 [48] | Analogy vs Explicit | - | - | N/A | = | N/A | + |
| Poolton et al. (2007b) [52] | Analogy vs Explicit | ? | ? | N/A | + | N/A | + |
| Schücker et al. (2010) [54] | Analogy vs Explicit | = | = | = | ? | N/A | N/A |
| Schücker et al. (2013) [55] | Analogy vs Explicit | ? | = | = | N/A | N/A | + |
| Tse et al (2017) [58] | Analogy vs Explicit–Young | + | + | N/A | = | N/A | + |
| Analogy vs Explicit–Old | + | + | N/A | = | N/A | + | |
| Koedijker et al. (2007) [40] | External vs Internal | = | = | = | = | N/A | = |
| Maxwell et al. (2002)—Experiment 1[46] | External vs Internal | = | = | = | = | N/A | = |
| Maxwell et al. (2002)—Experiment 2 [46] | External vs Internal | = | = | = | = | N/A | = |
| Poolton et al. (2006)—Experiment 1 [50] | External vs Internal | = | + | = | + | N/A | + |
| Poolton et al. (2006)—Experiment 2 [50] | External vs Internal | = | = | = | = | N/A | = |
| Singer et al (1993) [56] | External vs Internal | ? | + | = | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| Liao et al. (2001)—Experiment 1 [32] | Dual-task vs Explicit | ? | ? | N/A | + | N/A | + |
NB: Green ‘+’: Significantly (p<0.05) better performance or less declarative knowledge for implicit group compared to explicit group; Yellow ‘-’: Significantly (p<0.05) better performance or more declarative knowledge for explicit group compared to implicit group; ‘ = ‘: No significant difference between implicit and explicit groups; ‘?’: Outcome measure was assessed, but corresponding p-values could not be obtained; N/A: Outcome measure not assessed. Abbreviations: DT = dual-task; DTC = dual-task costs.