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Dopamine is sequentially oxidized to various heterogeneous derivatives (dopamine-quinone, leukochrome, dopachrome, DHI, and dicatechol) via covalent bonds (pink arrow). The covalently bonded oligomers are physically assembled via hydrogen bonds, π-π stacking, van der Waals interactions (gray box), and cation-π interactions (blue box), forming the polydopamine coating.
